PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

This study explores the factors that affect sustainable tourism practices in rural communities in Hainan Province, China. The theoretical perspective of social exchange theory is typically structured with a well-defined dimension. Previous research has not underlined the importance of investigating new factors influencing sustainable tourism. This study takes a qualitative approach, employing in-depth interview techniques, with 14 Shi Cha Village villagers interviewed in-depth, and the data is analyzed using Nvivo12 software. The model of sustainable development of agricultural community tourism is established based on the qualitative findings. The findings show that Shicha Village, as a rural tourism destination, has abundant natural and profound cultural resources, which are the primary conditions for tourism development. Brand development is an unavoidable option for increasing the community's popularity and ensuring the long-term development of tourism. This study adds three new variables to the Social Exchange Theory: brand, policy, and leadership. The research findings have practical implications for rural tourism decision-makers and managers.

• Alam, M. (2022). Understanding and improving digital tourism events in Pakistan. In A. Hassan (Eds.), Technology application in tourism fairs, festivals and events in Asia (pp. 233-247). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8070-0_14
  
  Alam, M., & Bahrein, K. (2021). Image branding factors & facilitating model of tourism destinations management during covid-19 in Pakistan. Journal of Tianjin University Science and Technology, 54(10), 428-444.
  
  Alam, M., & Kuppusamy, M. (2023). Integrated management for image branding: A prospective outlook from abbottabad as a tourism destination valley of Pakistan, BESRA Germany, International Conference on Recent Developments in Social Science and Digital Economy / Washington DC. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311975.2023.2259579
  
  Adom, D. (2016). Cultural festival as a salient tool for strategic, holistic and sustainable rural development in Africa: The case of the Opemso) festival of the asantes of Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 3(11). https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.311.2249
  
  Ahmad, M. S., & Abu Talib, N. B. (2015). Empowering local communities: Decentralization, empowerment and community driven development. Quality and Quantity, 49(2), 827-838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-014-0025-8
  
  Aikaterini, G., Ioannis, S., & Thanasis, K. (2001). Is agrotourism “Agro” or “Tourism”? Evidence from agrotourist holdings in Lesvos, Greece. Anatolia, 12(1), 6-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2001.9686995
  
  Andereck, K. L., Valentine, K. M., Knopf, R. C., & Vogt, C. A. (2005). Residents’ perceptions of community tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 1056-1076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2005.03.001
  
  Ap, J. (1992). Residents’ perceptions on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4), 665-690. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90060-3
  
  Aquino, R. S., Lück, M., & Schänzel, H. A. (2018). A conceptual framework of tourism social entrepreneurship for sustainable community development. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 37(July), 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2018.09.001
  
  Aref, F., Redzuan, M., & Gill, S. S. (2010). Dimensions of community capacity building: A review of its implications in tourism development. Journal of America Sciences, 6(1), 172-180.
  
  Arnstein, S. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of American Institute of Planners, 35(4), 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225
  
  Bachok, S., Hasbullah, H., & Amin, T. A. T. M. (2019). Rural agro-tourism and local community income: The case study of clustered homestays in Kelantan and Terengganu. Planning Malaysia, 17(1), 128-137. https://doi.org/10.21837/pmjournal.v17.i9.592
  
  Baidal, J. A. I. (2004). Tourism planning in Spain: Evolution and perspectives. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2), 313-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2003.12.001
  
  Baochang, L. (2020, June). Planning and design of rural complex under the background of rural revitalization-taking the eastern mountainous area of Jilin province as an example. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 525(1), p 012125. IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/525/1/012125
  
  Baum, T., Amoah, V., & Spivack, S. (1997). Policy dimensions of human resource management in the tourism and hospitality industries. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 9(5/6), 221-229. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596119710172615
  
  Bennett, N., Lemelin, R. H., Koster, R., & Budke, I. (2012). A capital assets framework for appraising and building capacity for tourism development in aboriginal protected area gateway communities. Tourism Management, 33(4), 752-766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.08.009
  
  Brandão, C. D. N., Barbieri, J. C., & Reyes, E. R. (2014). Analysis of the social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts of indigenous tourism: A multi-case study of indigenous communities in the Brazilian Amazon. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 187, 175-185. https://doi.org/10.2495/ST140141
  
  Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  
  Brida, J. G., Osti, L., & Faccioli, M. (2011). Residents’ perception and attitudes towards tourism impacts: A case study of the small rural community of Folgaria (Trentino - Italy). Benchmarking, 18(3), 359-385. https://doi.org/10.1108/14635771111137769
  
  Brown, K. G., & Cave, J. (2010). Island tourism: Marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4(2), 87-95. https://doi.org/10.1108/17506181011045163
  
  Burmann, C., Jost-Benz, M., & Riley, N. (2009). Towards an identity-based brand equity model. Journal of Business Research, 62(3), 390-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.06.009
  
  Butler, G. (2017). Fostering community empowerment and capacity building through tourism: perspectives from Dullstroom, South Africa. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 15(3), 199-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2015.1133631
  
  Chang, K. G., Chien, H., Cheng, H., & Chen, H. I. (2018). The impacts of tourism development in rural indigenous destinations: An investigation of the local residents’ perception using choice modeling. Sustainability, 10(12), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124766
  
  Chen, L. (2014). Cultural impact of modernization and tourism on Dai villages in Xishuangbanna, China. Tourism Geographies, 16(5), 757-771. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2014.948044
  
  Chen, Y. S., & Wu, S. T. (2019). Social networking practices of Viennese coffeehouse culture and intangible heritage tourism. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 17(2), 186-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2017.1400037
  
  Cole, S. (2006). Information and empowerment: The keys to achieving sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(6), 629-644.
  
  Dube, K., & Nhamo, G. (2021). Sustainable development goals localisation in the tourism sector: Lessons from Grootbos private nature reserve, South Africa. GeoJournal, 86(5), 2191-2208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10182-8
  
  Emery, M., & Flora, C. (2006). Spiraling-up: Mapping community transformation with community capitals framework. Community Development, 37(1), 19-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330609490152
  
  Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social Exchange Theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 335-362. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002003
  
  Fan, M., Li, W., Wei, G., & Luo, F. (2015). Tourism impacts on indigenous pastoral communities in China. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 68(1), 86-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2014.12.006
  
  Fang, M., Nguyen, T. H., & Armstrong, A. (2020). Developing collective leadership capacity to drive sustainable practices: Destination case of leadership development in Australia. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 46(5), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020932990
  
  Flora, C. B., Flora, J. L., & Gasteyer, S. P. (2015). Rural communities: Legacy and + change (5th ed.). Routledge.
  
  Franzidis, A. (2019). An examination of a social tourism business in Granada, Nicaragua. Tourism Review, 74(6), 1179-1190. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-04-2017-0076
  
  Gartner, W. C. (2014). Brand equity in a tourism destination. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 10(2), 108-116. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2014.6
  
  Giaccio, V., Mastronardi, L., Marino, D., Giannelli, A., & Scardera, A. (2018). Do rural policies impact on tourism development in Italy? A case study of agritourism. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(8), 2938. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082938
  
  Guaita Martínez, J. M., Martín Martín, J. M., Salinas Fernández, J. A., & Mogorrón-Guerrero, H. (2019). An analysis of the stability of rural tourism as a desired condition for sustainable tourism. Journal of Business Research, 100(March), 165-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.033
  
  Hagedorn, K. J. (2014). Resorting to spiritual tourism: Scared spectacle in Afro-Cuban Regla de Ocha. In T. Rommen & D. T. Neely (Eds.), Sun, sea, and sound: Music and tourism in the Circum-Caribbean (pp. 289-305). Oxford Academic Books. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199988853.003.0012
  
  Hall, C. M. (2002). Tourism in capital cities. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 50(3), 235-248.
  
  Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597-606. https://doi.org/10.1086/222355
  
  Imbaya, B. O., Nthiga, R. W., Sitati, N. W., & Lenaiyasa, P. (2019). Capacity building for inclusive growth in community-based tourism initiatives in Kenya. Tourism Management Perspectives, 30, 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.01.003
  
  Jannah, E. U., Muryani, C., & Rindarjono, M. G. (2018). Community-based tourism development at Gajah Mungkur Wonogiri tourist attraction. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 145, No. 1, p. 012017). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/145/1/012017
  
  Jolliffe, L., & Farnsworth, R. (2003). Seasonality in tourism employment: Human resource challenges. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 15(6), 312-316. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110310488140
  
  Kaitano, D. U. B. E. (2020). Tourism and sustainable development goals in the African context. International Journal of Economics and Finance Studies, 12(1), 88-102. https://doi.org/10.34109/ijefs.202012106
  
  Khalid, S., Ahmad, M. S., Ramayah, T., Hwang, J., & Kim, I. (2019). Community empowerment and sustainable tourism development: The mediating role of community support for tourism. Sustainability, 11(22), 6248. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11226248
  
  Kim, S., Whitford, M., & Arcodia, C. (2019). Development of intangible cultural heritage as a sustainable tourism resource: the intangible cultural heritage practitioners’ perspectives. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 14(5-6), 422-435. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2018.1561703
  
  Kunasekaran, P., Ramachandran, S., Samdin, Z., & Awang, K. (2012). Factors affecting farmers’ agro tourism involvement in Cameron Highlands, Pahang. OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 4(1), 83-90.
  
  Kunasekaran, P., Ramachandran, S., Yacob, M. R., & Shuib, A. (2011). Development of farmers’ perception scale on agro tourism in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(10-18).
  
  Law, R., Leung, R., & Buhalis, D. (2010). An analysis of academic leadership in hospitality and tourism journals. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 34(4), 455-477. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348010370866
  
  Lee, T. H., & Jan, F. H. (2019). Can community-based tourism contribute to sustainable development? Evidence from residents’ perceptions of the sustainability. Tourism Management, 70(September 2017), 368-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.09.003
  
  Liu, Y.-L., Ho, L.-M., & Liu, F. (2018). The brand management evaluation indicators model of agri-tourism farms: A core competence perspective. Open Access Library Journal, 5(8), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1104827
  
  Lu, Y., & Li, B. (2021). Research on regional differences of the leisure agriculture's impact on farmers' income-an empirical analysis based on nonlinear threshold regression. Sustainability, 13(15), 8416. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158416
  
  Malkanthi, S. H. P., & Routry, J. K. (2011). Potential for agritourism development: Evedance from Sri Lanka. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 6(1), 45-58. https://doi.org/10.4038/jas.v6i1.3812
  
  Martini, U., Buffa, F., & Notaro, S. (2017). Community participation, natural resource management and the creation of innovative tourism products: Evidence from Italian networks of reserves in the Alps. Sustainability, 9(12), 2314. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122314
  
  McGehee, Nancy G., Kim, K., & Jennings, G. R. (2015). Gender and motivation for agri-tourism entrepreneurship. Tourism Management, 28(1), 280-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.12.022
  
  McNamara, M., Bohle, P., & Quinlan, M. (2011). Precarious employment, working hours, work-life conflict and health in hotel work. Applied Ergonomics, 42(2), 225-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2010.06.013
  
  Moser, C. O. N. (1989). Community participation in urban projects in the third world. Progress in Planning, 32, 71-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-9006(89)90010-X
  
  Muresan, I. C., Oroian, C. F., Harun, R., Arion, F. H., Porutiu, A., Chiciudean, G. O., Todea, A., & Lile, R. (2016). Local residents’ attitude toward sustainable rural tourism development. Sustainability, 8(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8010100
  
  Murphy, L., Moscardo, G., & Benckendorff, P. (2007). Using brand personality to differentiate regional tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 46(1), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507302371
  
  Mustafa, M. H., & Tayeh, S. N. A. (2011). The impacts of tourism development on the archaeological site of Petra and local communities in surrounding villages. Asian Social Science, 7(8), 88-95. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v7n8p88
  
  Noorhayati, M. R., Mohd Hasmadi, I., Pakhriazad, H. Z., & Khairil Wahidin, A. (2016, April). Identifying motivation factors of the participation of local community in tourism industry in national park, Pahang, Malaysia. In A. A. Rahman (Ed.), Knowledge, service, tourism and hospitality - Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Management and Technology in Knowledge, Service, Tourism and Hospitality (pp. 107-112). CRC Press/Balkema. https://doi.org/10.1201/b21184-20
  
  Park, D. B., Lee, K. W., Choi, H. S., & Yoon, Y. (2012). Factors influencing social capital in rural tourism communities in South Korea. Tourism Management, 33(6), 1511-1520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.02.005
  
  Paronen, O., & Oja, P. (1998). How to understand a community - Community assessment for the promotion of health-related physical activity. Patient Education and Counseling, 33, S25-S28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-3991(98)00006-8
  
  Petrovic, M. D., Blesic, I., Ivolga, A., & Vujko, A. (2016). Agritourism impact toward locals’ attitudes - An evidence from Vojvodina Province (Serbia). Journal of the Geographical Institute "Jovan Cvijic", SASA, 66(1), 105-123. https://doi.org/10.2298/IJGI1601105P
  
  Pike, S. (2005). Tourism destination branding complexity. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 14(4), 258-259. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610420510609267
  
  Rasoolimanesh, S. M., & Jaafar, M. (2016). Community participation toward tourism development and conservation program in rural world heritage sites. In L. Butowski (Ed.), Tourism - from empirical research towards practical application (pp. 1-14). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/62293
  
  Reimer, J. K. K., & Walter, P. (2013). How do you know it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia. Tourism Management, 34, 122-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.04.002
  
  Samah, A. A. (2006). Participation and quality of life: A study on the people’s empowerment in a Malay village community. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 14(1), 11-25.
  
  Saufi, A., O’Brien, D., & Wilkins, H. (2014). Inhibitors to host community participation in sustainable tourism development in developing countries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(5), 801-820. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.861468
  
  Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A., & Bristow, A. (2019). Understanding research philosophy and approaches to theory development. In Research methods for business students (pp. 128-171). Pearson Education.
  
  Sharma, B. (2019). Review of human resource practices in hospitality and tourism. Journal of Hospitality, 1(1), 15-30.
  
  Sharpley, R., & Roberts, L. (2004). Rural tourism-10 years on. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(3), 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.478
  
  Shen, S., Wang, H., Quan, Q., & Xu, J. (2019). Rurality and rural tourism development in China. Tourism Management Perspectives, 30, 98-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.02.006
  
  Siakwah, P., Musavengane, R., & Leonard, L. (2020). Tourism governance and attainment of the sustainable development goals in Africa. Tourism Planning & Development, 17(4), 355-383. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2019.1600160
  
  Singh, A. P. (2013). Factors influencing entrepreneurship among farming community in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Commerce and Management Studies, 4(3), 13-18.
  
  Sisneros-Kidd, A. M., Monz, C., Hausner, V., Schmidt, J., & Clark, D. (2019). Nature-based tourism, resource dependence, and resilience of Arctic communities: framing complex issues in a changing environment. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(8), 1259-1276. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1612905
  
  Sithole, N., Giampiccoli, A., & Jugmohan, S. (2018). Community capacity building through tourism: The case of Shakaland Zulu Cultural Village. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 7(1), 1-14.
  
  Shuiyu, J. (2018). Hainan plans good news for Free Trade. Chinadaily.com.cn. Available at https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/17/WS5ad55a98a3105cdcf6518bd5.html Accessed 05 February 2025.
  
  Sumra, K. B., Ahmad, M. S., & Alam, M. (2020). Informal economy, social inequalities and street vendors in Pakistan: Governance, politics and tourism in pandemic. Multicultural Education, 8(1), 91-105. https://mc-caddogap.com/wp-content/uploads/9-mc-8-11.pdf
  
  Sumra, K. B., Alam, M., & Aftab, R. (2022). Artificial intelligence for strengthening administrative and support services in public sector amid COVID-19: Challenges and opportunities in Pakistan. Advances in Data Science and Intelligent Data Communication Technologies for COVID-19: Innovative Solutions Against COVID-19, 153-172.
  
  Sutawa, G. K. (2012). Issues on Bali tourism development and community empowerment to support sustainable tourism development. Procedia Economics and Finance, 4(Icsmed), 413-422. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(12)00356-5
  
  Timothy, D., & Tosun, C. (2003). Arguments for community participation in the tourism development process. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(2), 2-15.
  
  Trudeau Poskas, D. A., & Messer, C. C. (2015). Investigating leadership applications in tourism: A case study of leadership in community tourism. Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism, 15(2), 186-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313220.2015.1026475
  
  Valente, F., Dredge, D., & Lohmann, G. (2015). Leadership and governance in regional tourism. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 4(2), 127-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2015.03.005
  
  Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 17-24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.17
  
  Wang, M., Rasoolimanesh, S. M., & Kunasekaran, P. (2022). A review of social entrepreneurship research in tourism: Knowledge map, operational experiences, and roadmaps. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30(8), 1777-1798. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.2007255
  
  Wang, Y., & Pfister, R. E. (2008). Residents’ attitudes toward tourism and perceived personal benefits in a rural community. Journal of Travel Research, 47(1), 84-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507312402
  
  Wardana, I. M., Utama, M. W. I., & Astawa, P. I. (2018a). Model of local population perception in supporting coastal tourism development and planning in bali. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 23(3), 873-880. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.23321-335
  
  Wardana, A. G. O. P., Utama, M. S., Yasa, I. Y. M., & Budiasa, I. G. S. (2018b). Effect of community participation, tourism infrastructure, tourist visit to the tourism industry performance and the quality living community in Bali Indonesia. International Journal of Sustainability, Education, and Global Creative Economic, 1(1), 79-86.
  
  Wendel, M. L., Burdine, J. N., McLeroy, K. R., Alaniz, A., Norton, B., & Felix, M. R. J. (2009). Community capacity: Theory and application. Emerging Theories in Health Promotion Practice and Research, 277, 302.
  
  Woosnam, K. M., Draper, J., Jiang, J. K., Aleshinloye, K. D., & Erul, E. (2018). Applying self-perception theory to explain residents’ attitudes about tourism development through travel histories. Tourism Management, 64, 357-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.09.015
  
  Yan, C. (2014). Countermeasures for developing leisure agriculture in Hainan under the background of international tourism island construction. Guangdong Agricultural Sciences, 41(19), 232-236.
  
  Yang, G. (2021). Research on the planning and design of leisure agriculture industrial park under the background of rural revitalization. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1865(3), P 032010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1865/3/032010
  
  Zhang, H., & Lei, S. L. (2017). A structural model of residents’ intention to participate in ecotourism: The case of a wetland community. Tourism Management, 33(4), 916-925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.09.012
  
  Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Empowerment theory: Handbook of community psychology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4193-6_2