Home / Regular Issue / JST Vol. 29 (2) Jun. 2021 / JSSH-7197-2020

 

Relationship between Online Interethnic Interactions on Interethnic Bridging Social Capital: A Study of Academic Staff in Malaysian Private Universities

Ng Miew Luan, Wan Puspa Melati Wan Halim and Ayesha Aqilah M Hafifi

Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, Volume 29, Issue 2, June 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.29.2.30

Keywords: Academic staff, bridging social capital, interethnic interaction, Malaysia, private university

Published on: 28 June 2021

For decades, the uniqueness of Malaysia’s multiethnic, multilingual, and multicultural characteristics have been the focus of thinkers and policymakers in their effort towards nation-building. Such effort has been complemented by the contribution of researchers who provide relevant data and findings. Though the area of interethnic relations and interactions in Malaysia has been well researched, there is a gap in the literature regarding online interethnic relations and its role in bridging social capital. Hence, this study examined the relationship between online interethnic interactions and bridging social capital as well as the moderating effect of ethnicity among academics in Malaysian private universities. Quantitative data was collected through online self-administered questionnaires with 118 respondents and analyzed using SmartPLs software. The findings revealed that online interethnic interactions were vital in bridging social capital between academic members in private universities. The predictors of online ethic interaction (β = 0.718, t = 15.158, f2 = 1.062) were found to have a positive relationship with bridging social capital. The R of 0.515 suggesting there is 51.5% of the variation in bridging social capital was explained by online ethnic interaction. However, there is no evidence of ethnicity as a mediating role in bridging social capital. The authors argued that the role of private universities in Malaysia as a catalyst towards nation-building should be recognized and leveraged.

  • Akashi Y. (1981). Bureaucracy and the Japanese military administration, with specific reference to Malaya. In W. H. Newell (Ed.), Japan in Asia 1942-1945 (pp. 46-82). University Press.

  • Ali, S. H. (2015). Ethnic relations in Malaysia: Harmony & conflict. Strategic Information and Research Development Centre.

  • Andaya, B. W., & Andaya, L. Y. (2001). A history of Malaysia. Macmillan Education UK.

  • Arrest No. 2 Sin Chew journalist held. (2008, September 12). Malaysiakini.com. http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/89602

  • Balakrishnan, V., & Shamin, A. (2013). Malaysian Facebookers: Motives and addictive behaviours unraveled. Computer in Human Behaviour, 29(4), 1342-1349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.010

  • Barnshaw, J., & Trainor, J. (2007). Race, class, and capital amidst the Hurricane Katrina Diaspora. In D. L. Brunsma, D. Overfelt & J. S. Picou (Eds.), The sociology of Katrina: Perspectives on a modern catastrophe (pp. 91-105). Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

  • Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. https://www.academia.edu/5543729/Bourdieu_and_Wacquant_An_Invitation_to_Reflexive_Sociology_1992

  • Campbell, J. K., & Yen, S. H. (2007). Trust in mono-ethnic and mixed-ethnic associations in Penang. Kajian Malaysia, 25(1), 71-95. http://web.usm.my/km/25(1)2007/KM%20ART%2025(1)_5.pdf

  • Chandran, P. (2002, March 8). Remembering Kampung Medan: One year after. Malaysiakini.com. http://www.malaysiakini.com /news/10633

  • Cheah, B. K. (2004). Ethnicity and nation-building in Malaysia. In B. K. Cheah (Ed.), The challenge of ethnicity: Building a nation in Malaysia (pp. 1-8). Marshal Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited.

  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95-S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943

  • Cooley, C. H. (1909). Social Organization. Scribner’s.

  • Crouch, H. (2001). Managing ethnic tensions through affirmative action: The Malaysian experience. In N. J. Colletta, T. G. Lim, & A. Kelles-Viitanen (Eds.), Social cohesion and conflict prevention in Asia – managing diversity through development (pp. 225-262). World Bank.

  • Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2020). ICT use and access by individuals and households survey report, Malaysia 2019. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=395&bul_id=SFRacTRUMEVRUFo1Ulc4Y1JlLzBqUT09&menu_id=amVoWU54UTl0a21NWmdhMjFMMWcyZz09

  • Donath, J. (2007). Signals in social supernet. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 231-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00394.x

  • Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefit of Facebook ‘friends:’ Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143-1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x

  • Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2011). Connection strategies: Social capital implication of Facebook-enabled communication practices. New Media & Society, 13(6), 873-892. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810385389

  • Etzioni, A. (1975). A comparative analysis of complex organization: On power, involvment, and their correlates. The Free Press.

  • Farrell, C. (2007). Thinking critically about social capital. Irish Journal of Sociology, 16(2), 27-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/079160350701600203

  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104

  • Gomez, E. T. (2003). Affirmative action and enterprise development in Malaysia: The New Economic Policy, business partnership and interethnic relationships. Kajian Malaysia, XXI (1&2), 59-104. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Edmund_Gomez2/publication/267855776_Affirmative_action_and_enterprise_development_in_Malaysia_the_new_economic_policy_business_partnerships_and_inter-ethnic_relations/links/54905e600cf225bf66a82c60/Affirmative-action-and-enterprise-development-in-Malaysia-the-new-economic-policy-business-partnerships-and-inter-ethnic-relations.pdf

  • Granovetter, M. S. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. Sociological Theory, 1, 201-233. https://doi.org/10.2307/202051

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed). Pearson.

  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G., Tomas, M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on Partia Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

  • Hammond, R. A., & Axelrod, R. (2006). The evolution of ethnocentrism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(6), 926-936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002706293470

  • Harper, T. N. (1999). The end of the empire and the making of Malaya. Cambridge University Press.

  • Hawkins, R. L., & Maurer, K. (2009). Bonding, bridging and linking: How social capital operated in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. British Journal of Social Work, 40(6), 1777-1793. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcp087

  • Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modelling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

  • Hirschman, C. (1986). The making of race in colonial Malaya: Political economy and racial ideology. Sociological Forum, 1(2), 330-361. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01115742

  • Ibrahim, R., Muslim, N., & Buang, A. H. (2011). Multiculturalism and higher education in Malaysia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Science, 15, 1003-1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.229

  • Jomo, K. S. (2004). The new economic policy and interethnic Relations in Malaysia. UNRISD. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/45937/7.pdf

  • Kee, T. C. (2012, November 1). What everyone should know about Operasi Lalang. Malaysiandigest.com. http://www.malaysiandigest.com/archived/index.php/25- features/commentary/18552-what-everyone- should-know-about- operasi-lalang.html

  • Kent, N. J. (1996). The new campus racism: What’s going on? Thought and Action, 12(2), 45-57.

  • Ketab, S. M. G. (2015). Perceived effects of ethnocentrism, offline and online interethnic interactions on interethnic bridging social capital among undergraduates in Malaysian public universities [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Universiti Putra Malaysia.

  • Ketab, S. M. G., Sharif, S. P., Mehrabi, D., & Rahman, N. A. A. (2019). Effects of ethnocentrism and online interethnic interactions on interethnic bridging social capital among university students: The moderating role of ethnicity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 71, 48-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.04.004

  • Ketab, S. M. G., Tamam, E., Bolong, J., & Sharif, S. P. (2015). Impact of ethnocentrism on interethnic interactions among local students in Malaysian universities. Taylor’s Business Review, 5(1), 11-30. http://university2.taylors.edu.my/tbr/uploaded/2015_vol5_issue1_p2.pdf

  • Ketab, S. M. G., Tamam, E., Bolong, J., & Sharif, S. P. (2016). Interethnic bridging social capital and the significance of ethnocentric interethnic interaction within Malaysian universities. Journal of Intercultural Communication, (42). https://immi.se/intercultural/nr42/ketab.html

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.

  • Lai, F. Y., & Ishak, M. S. A. (2012). Framing interethnic conflict in Malaysia: A comparative analysis of newspapers coverage of the Hindu Rights Action Forces (Hindraf). International Journal of Communication, 6, 166-189. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1307

  • Lim, J. S. Y., Agostinho, S., Harper, B., & Chichro, J. (2014). The engagement of social media technologies by undergraduates informatic students for academic purpose in Malaysia. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 12(3), 177-194. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-03-2014-0016

  • Lin, N. (2001) Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press.

  • Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2015). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 (Higher Education). https://www.kooperation-international.de/uploads/media/3._Malaysia_Education_Blueprint_2015-2025__Higher_Education__.pdf

  • Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (n.d.). Number of HEI. https://www.mohe.gov.my/en/

  • Moghavvemi, S., Sulaiman, A., Jaafar, N. I., & Kasem, N. (2017). Facebook and YouTube Addiction: The usage pattern of Malaysian students, presented at 2017 International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information System, Langkawi, Malaysia. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sedigheh_Moghavvemi/publication/319052313_Facebook_and_YouTube_addiction_The_usage_pattern_of_Malaysian_students/links/59ec7c46a6fdccef8b0c7991/Facebook-and-YouTube-addiction-The-usage-pattern-of-Malaysian-students.pdf

  • Mujani, W. K., Muttaqin, A., & Khalid, K. A. (2014). Historical development of public institutions of higher learning in Malaysia. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 2154-2157. https://www.idosi.org/mejsr/mejsr20(12)14/88.pdf

  • Müller, J. (2021). Social media users as a percentage of the total population of Malaysia 2021. Statista.com. https://www.statista.com/statistics/883712/malaysia-social-media-penetration/

  • Mustapha, R. (2009). Social integration among multiethnic students at selected Malaysian universities in Peninsular Malaysia: A survey of campus social climate. ASEAN Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. 1(1), 35-44. http://ejournal.ukm.my/ajtlhe/article/view/10462/3465

  • Ng, M. L. (2019). An ethnic press in Malaysia: A study of Sin Chew Daily 2012-2013 [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Universiti Sains Malaysia.

  • Noraini, M. N. (2007). Polarisation and inequality in Malaysia: The future of Malay-Chinese relations. Intellectual Discourse, 15(2), 191-204. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277868067_Polarisation_and_inequality_in_Malaysia_The_future_of_Malay-Chinese_relations

  • Number of social network users in Malaysia from 2017-2023 (in millions). (n.d.). Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/489233/number-of-social-network-users-in-malaysia/

  • Ong, K. C. (1998). Malai xiya zuqun zhengdang zhengzhi (马来西亚族群政党政治) [The ethnic politics in Malaysia]. Polar Vista Sdn. Bhd.

  • Ongkili, J. P. (1985). Nation-building in Malaysia 1964-1974. Oxford University Press.

  • Phua, J., Jin, S. V., & Kim, J. J. (2017). Uses and gratification of social networking sites for bridging and bonding social capital: A comparison of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Snapchat. Computer in Human Behaviour, 72, 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.041

  • Pooley, J. A., Cohen, L., & Pike, L. (2004). Can sense of community inform social capital? Social Science Journal, 42(1), 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.11.006

  • Putnam, R. D. (1993). The prosperous community. The American Prospect, 4(13), 35-42. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7ca2/ff64d7db151775ed4ff002754157189ddca0.pdf?_ga=2.137775856.1542825441.1583482501-553494111.1567871329

  • Putnam, R. D. (2001). Bowling alone, the collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.

  • Roberts, J. M. (2004). What’s social about social capital? British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 6(4), 471-493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-856X.2004.00151.x

  • Shamsul, A. B. (1997). The making of a “plural” Malaysia: A brief survey. In D. Y. H. Wu, H. McQueen & Y. Yasushi (Eds.), Emerging pluralism in Asia and the Pacific (pp. 67-83). Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

  • Shamsul, A. B. (1998). Ethnicity class culture or identity? Competing paradigms in Malaysian studies. Akademika, 53(1), 33-59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275975179_Etnicity_Class_Culture_or_Identity_Competing_Paradigms_in_Malaysian_Studies

  • Shamsul, A. B. (1999). Identity contestation in Malaysia: A comparative commentary on ‘Malayness’ and ‘Chineseness’. Akademika, 55(1), 17-37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275977995_Identity_Contestation_in_Malaysia_A_Comparative_Commentary_on_’Malayness’_and_’Chineseness’

  • Shamsul, A. B. (2008). Hubungan etnik di Malaysia: Mencari dan mengekal kejernihan dalam kekeruhan [Ethnic relations in Malaysia: Finding and retaining clarity in turbidity]. Siri Kertas Kajian Etnik UKM, 1.

  • Siisiäinen, M. (2000). Two concepts of social capital: Bourdieu vs. Putnam. ISTR Fourth International Conference, Ireland. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200031251_Two_Concepts_of_Social_Capital_Bourdieu_vs_Putnam

  • Siisiäinen, M. (2003). One concept, two approaches: Bourdieu and Putnam in social capital. International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 40(2), 183-204. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274752109_One_Concept_Two_Approaches_Bourdieu_and_Putnam_on_Social_Capital

  • Tamam, E. (2009). Influence of interethnic contact on interethnic attitudes of Malay and Chinese Malaysian university students in Malaysia. Human Communication Research, 12(1), 53-66. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ezhar_Tamam/publication/242317466_Influence_of_Interethnic_Contact_on_Interethnic_Attitudes_of_Malay_and_Chinese_Malaysian_University_Students_in_Malaysia/links/004635292bc2565386000000.pdf

  • Tamam, E. (2013). Interracial bridging social capital among students of a multicultural university in Malaysia. Journal of College Student Development, 54(1), 85-97. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0000

  • Tamam, E., & Abdullah, A. N. (2012). Influences of ethnic-related diversity experiences on intercultural sensitivity of students at a public university in Malaysia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(3), 519-528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-012-9212-2

  • Teoh, E. S. (2012, December 7). Musa: I was upset by Sin Chew reporter’s detention. FMT News. http://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2012/12/07/musa-i-was-upset-by-sin-chew-reporter%E2%80%99s-detention/

  • Ting, H. (2012). Interethnic relations in Malaysian campuses: An historical review. Malaysian Journal of Chinese Studies, 2012(1), 60-84. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311912047_Interethnic_Relations_in_Malaysian_Campuses_A_Historical_Review

  • Wan Jaafar, W. M. (2011). On-line networks, social capital and social integration: A case study of on-line communities in Malaysia [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Canterbury.

  • Wan, P. M. (2020). Community mediators in Malaysia: Profile and analyses on their roles and challenges. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 10(10), 624-643.

  • Williams, D. (2006). On and off the’ net: Scales for social capital in the online era. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2), 593-628. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00029.x

  • Wok, S., Idid, S. A., & Misman, N. (2012). Social media use for information-sharing activities among youth Malaysia. Journalism and Mass Communication, 2(11), 1029-1047. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264163238_Social_media_use_for_information-sharing_activities_among_youth_in_Malaysia

  • Yokoyama, S., & Ali, A. K. (2006, August 12-18). Social capital and farmer welfare in Malaysia [Paper presentation] International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Gold Coast, Australia.

  • Zainal, K., Abu, D. T., & Mohamad, Z. (2010). The effect of ethnic relations course on the students perceptions towards ethnic relations among first year students of one public university in Malaysia. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 3596-3599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.558

ISSN 0128-7680

e-ISSN 2231-8526

Article ID

JSSH-7197-2020

Download Full Article PDF

Share this article

Recent Articles