PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

Educational leadership behaviour and effectiveness instruments available in the literature are primarily outside the African continent. Educational leadership researchers do not consider the cultural context in adopting scale. In Sahara-Africa, where Nigeria is located, researchers have scientific and ethical questions on the validity of the instruments used for data collection. Experience showed that researchers in Sahara Africa tousled for an instrument to conduct their study in leadership and management, resulting in a self-designed instrument without adequate validation. The study, therefore, validated the measurement scale on head teachers’ behaviour and administrative effectiveness in public primary schools. A non-experimental design was adopted for the scale development. Parallel analysis was used to establish factors of the scales and construct validity and reliability with the aid of R-programming and Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling. The results showed that leadership behaviour has three components (directive, supportive, and consultative) with 29 items. It was in line with the path-goal and situation theories underpinning this study. Also, the average variance extracted for all the components was above the 0.50 cut-off, HTMT values were below 0.90, and composite reliabilities were above 0.70, respectively. Thus, the scales were valid and reliable to use by researchers interested in this area.

• Abdullahi, N. J. K. (2021). Educational Leadership and instructional best practices in North-central, Nigeria. International Journal of Adult Learning and Continuing Education, 5(1), 34-42.

• Akinola, O. B. (2013). Principals’ leadership skills and school effectiveness: The case of Southwestern Nigeria. World Journal of Education, 3(5), 26-33. https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v3n5p26

• Albers, S. (2010). PLS and success factor studies in marketing. In V. E. Vinzi, W. W. Chin, J. Henseler, & H. Wang (Eds.), Handbook of partial least squares: Concepts, methods and applications (Springer handbooks of computational statistics series) (pp. 409–425). Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8_19

• Alimi, O. S. (2013). Observed leadership behaviour of primary school head-teachers in Osun State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education, 2(2), 192-197.

• Alli, B. (2018). Measuring leadership performance: The notion of influence [White paper]. PSI Services. https://content.psionline.com/hubfs/Talent%20Management%20White%20Papers/WP_PSI%20Measuring%20Leadership%20Performance.pdf

• Amanchukwu, R. N., & Ololube, N. P. (2015). Excellent school records behaviour for effective management of educational systems. Human Resource Management Research, 5(1), 12-17.

• April, A. (2018). Organisational effectiveness-Is it effective? Armstrong McGuire. https://www.armstrongmcguire.com/post/organizational-effectiveness-is-it-effective

• Apebende, E. U., & Ushie, S. C. (2018). Teachers’ perception of their head teachers’ role effectiveness. Global Journal of Educational Research, 17, 47-53. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v17i1.7

• Arikewuyo, M. O., & Onanuga, P. A. (2005). Efficiency in school administration. In S. Y. Erinoso, M. O. Arikewuyo, & B. J. Ogunkoya (Eds.), Issues in School Organisation, (pp. 17-32). African Cultural Institute.

• Arinze, P., & Okonta, L. (2022). Management of teaching and learning in primary education sector for excellence in Nigeria: Challenges and way forward. African Journal of Educational Management, Teaching and Entrepreneurship Studies, 6(1), 80-95.

• Awodiji, O. A., Owolabi, J., Riffat, A. R., & Effrim, P. K. (2022). Modelling motivational techniques with teachers’ job satisfaction in private secondary schools. International Journal of Theory and Application in Elementary and Secondary School Education (IJTAESE), 4(1), 22-42. https://doi.org/10.31098/ijtaese.v4i1.752

• Ayanwale, M. A., Molefi, R. R., & Matsie, N. (2023). Modelling secondary school students’ attitudes toward TVET subjects using social cognitive and planned behavior theories. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 8(1), Article 100478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100478

• Ayanwale, M. A., & Oladele, J. I. (2021). Path modelling of online learning indicators and learners’ satisfaction during covid-19 pandemic. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 15(10), 521-541.

• Barinua, V., & Ibe, U. M. (2022). Employee mentoring and organisational effectiveness. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 6(4), 202-213.

• Becker, J.-M., Klein, K., & Wetzels, M. (2012). Hierarchical latent variable models in PLS-SEM: Guidelines for using reflective-formative type models. Long Range Planning, 45(6), 359-394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2012.10.001

• Bhasin, H. (2020). Organisational effectiveness-definition, meaning and six systems. https://www.marketing91.com/organizational-effectiveness/

• Bell, C., Chan, M., & Nel, P. (2014). The impact of participative and directive leadership on organisational culture: An organisational development perspective. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(23), 1970-1985. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n23p1970

• Bell, C., Dodd, N., & Mjoli, T. (2018). The effect of participative and directive leadership on team effectiveness among administrative employees in a South African tertiary institution. Journal of Social Sciences, 55(1-3), 81-91.

• Bush, T. (2020). Theories of educational leadership and management, (5th ed.). Sage. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/afr/theories-of-educational-leadership-and-management/book258644

• Bush, T., Fadare, M., Chirimambowa, T., Enukorah, E., Musa, D., Nur, H., Nyawo, T., & Shipota, M. (2021). Instructional leadership in sub-Saharan Africa: Policy and practice. International Journal of Educational Management, 36(1), 14-31. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-01-2021-0027

• Cansoy, R. (2019). The relationship between school principals’ leadership behaviours and Teachers’ job satisfaction: A systematic review. International Education Studies, 12(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v12n1p37

• Chen, J. (2020). Understanding teacher leaders’ behaviours: Development and validation of the Teacher Leadership Inventory. Educational Management Administration and Leadership, 50(4), 630-648. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220945704

• Chin, W. W. (2010). How to write up and report PLS analyses. In V. E. Vinzi, WW Chin J Henseler, & H. Wang (Eds.), Handbook of partial least squares: Concepts, methods and applications. Springer handbooks of computational statistics series (pp. 655–690). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8_29

• Cruz, M. A., Henningson, D. D., & Smith, B. A. (2009). The impact of directive leadership on group information sampling, decisions, perceptions of the leader. Communication Research, 26(3), 349–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365099026003004

• Daniëls, E., Hondeghem, A., & Dochy, F. (2019). A review on leadership and leadership development in educational settings. Educational Research Review, 27, 110-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.02.003

• Darling-Hammonda, L., Flooka, L., Cook-Harveya, C., Barronb, B., & Osherc, D. (2020) Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791

• Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organisation. Journal of Applied. Psychology, 74(4), 580–590. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580

• Diamantopoulos, A., Sarstedt, M., Fuchs, C., Wilczynski, P., & Kaiser, S. (2012). Guidelines for choosing between multi-item and single-item scales for construct measurement: A predictive validity perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(3), 434-449.

• Dös, I., & Savas, A. C. (2015). Elementary school administrators and their roles in the context of effective schools. SAGE Open, 5(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014567400

• Edwards, J. R. (2001). Multidimensional constructs in organisational behaviour research: An integrative analytical framework. Organizational Research Methods, 4(2), 144-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810142004

• Euwema, M. C., Wendt, H., & Van Emmerik, H. (2007). Leadership styles and group organisational citizenship behaviour across cultures. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 28(8), 1035-1057. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.496

• Fan, F. A., & Ekpe, M. D. (2006). The centrality of effective leadership and followership in group dynamics. Journal of Research in National Development, 4(2), 88-91. https://doi.org/10.4314/jorind.v4i2.42337

• Fiedler, F. E. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 149-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60051-9

• Fiedler, F. E. (1995). Cognitive resources and leadership performance. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 44(1), 5-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1995.tb01378.x

• Golshani, G., & Rahiminejad, P. (2018). Examining the relationship between organisational effectiveness and leadership styles. Contemporary Educational Researches Journal, 8(3), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.18844/cerj.v8i3.3571

• Grissom, J., & Loeb, S. (2011). Triangulating principal effectiveness: How perspectives of parents, teachers, and assistant principals identify the central importance of managerial skills. American Educational Research Journal, 48(5), 1091-1123. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831211402663

• Grissom, J., Loeb, S., & Master, B. (2013). Effective instructional time use for school leaders: Longitudinal evidence from observations of principals. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 433-444. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X13510020

• Grobler, A., & Flotman, A. P. (2020). The validation of the servant leadership scale. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 46, Article a1754. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1754

• Gronn, P. (2002). Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(4), 423-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00120-0

• Gupta, V. K., Huang, R., & Nuranjan, S. (2010). A longitudinal examination of the relationship between team leadership and performance. Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, 17(4), 335-350. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051809359184

• Gyang, T. S. (2021). Dynamics of leadership and teacher effectiveness in universities in north-central Nigeria. Journal of Educational Management, 11. https://doi.org/10.47963/jem.v11i.239

• Hair, J. F., Jr, Hult. G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/afr/a-primer-on-partial-least-squares-structural-equation-modeling-pls-sem/book244583

• Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679190202

• Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading educational change: Reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764032000122005

• Harris, A. (2013). Distributed leadership: Friend or foe? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41(5), 545-554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213497635

• Harris, A., & DeFlaminis, J. (2016). Distributed leadership in practice: Evidence, misconceptions and possibilities. Management in Education, 30(4), 141-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020616656734

• Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

• Hitt, D. H., & Tucker, P. D. (2016). Systematic review of key leader practices found to influence student achievement: A unified framework. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 531-569. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315614911

• Horn, J. (1965) A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447

• Humphreys, L. G., & Montanelli, R. G. Jr. (1975). An investigation of the parallel analysis criterion for determining the number of common factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 10(2), 193-205. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr1002_5

• Jones, S. S., Jones, O. S., Winchester, N., & Grint, K. (2016). Putting the discourse to work on outlining a praxis of democratic leadership development. Management Learning, 47(4), 424-442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507616631926

• Kareem, J., & Patrick. H. A. (2019). Educational leadership styles scale (ELSS): Construction, validation and reliability analysis. IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(4), 50-67.

• Khan, Z. A., Bhat, S. J., & Hussanie, I. (2017). Understanding leadership theories - A review for researchers. Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, 7(5), 249-264. http://doi.org/10.5958/2249-7315.2017.00313.6

• Koopman, P. L., & Wierdsma, A. F. M. (2008). Participative management. In P. J. D. Drenth, T. Henk, & C. De Wolff (Eds.), Personnel psychology: Handbook of work and organisational psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 297-324). Psychology Press. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203765432-13/participative-management-koopman-wierdsma

• Kuhn, S. K. (2007). An overview and discussion of Fred E. Fiedler’s Contingency Model of leadership effectiveness. Librarian Publications, Article 13.

• Kwiotkowska, A., Wolniak, R., Gajdzik, B., & Gębczyńska, M. (2022). Configurational paths of leadership competency shortages and 4.0 leadership effectiveness: An fs/QCA study. Sustainability, 14(5), Article 2795. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052795

• Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2005). A review of transformational school leadership research 1996–2005. Leadership and policy in schools, 4(3), 177-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700760500244769

• Leithwood, K. (2010). School leadership in the context of accountability policies. International Journal of Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice, 4(3), 217-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603120110057082

• Lussier, R. N., & Achua, C. F. (2010). Leadership: Theory, application, skill development. Cengage Learning.

• Madanchian, M., Hussein, N., Noordin, F., & Taherdoost, H. (2017). Leadership effectiveness measurement and its effect on organization outcomes. Procedia Engineering, 181, 1043-1048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.505

• Mahembe, B., & Engelbrecht, A. S. (2013). A confirmatory factor analytical study of a servant leadership measure in South Africa. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(2), Article a1127. http://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v39i2.1127

• Mestry, R. (2021). School leadership and financial management. In T. M. Makoelle, T. Makhalemele, P. du Plessis (Eds.), School Leadership for Democratic Education in South Africa (pp. 231-246). Routledge. ­https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003121367-14

• Malik, S. H. (2013). Relationship between leader behaviours and employees’ job satisfaction: A path-goal approach. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 7(1), 209 – 222.

• May, H., Huff, J., & Goldring, E. (2012). A longitudinal study of principals’ activities and student performance. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 23(4), 417-439. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2012.678866

• Mbon, U. F. (2017). Head teachers’ managerial behaviour and teachers’ task performance in public primary schools in Calabar-South local government area, Cross river state, Nigeria. Global Journal of Educational Research, 16(2), 163-169. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v16i2.11

• McCullough, M., Lipscomb, S., Chiang, H., Gill, B., & Cheban, I. (2016). Measuring school leaders’ effectiveness: Final report from a multiyear pilot of Pennsylvania’s Framework for Leadership. REL 2016–106. Institute of Education Sciences. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED563446.pdf

• Molefi, R. R. & Ayanwale, M. A. (2023). Using composite structural equation modeling to examine high school teachers’ acceptance of e-learning after Covid-19. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(1), 01-11. https://doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v10i1.8837

• Naicker, S. R., & Mestry, R. (2011). Distributive leadership in public schools: Experiences and perceptions of teachers in the Soweto region. Perspectives in Education, 29(4), 99-108. https://journals.ufs.ac.za/index.php/pie/article/view/1722

• Naicker, S. R., & Mestry, R. (2013). Teachers’ reflections on distributive leadership in public primary schools in Soweto. South African Journal of Education, 33(2), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v33n2a715

• Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage Publications. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/afr/leadership/book270138

• Nwalado, E. N. (2021). Strategies for improving quality assurance in primary school social studies curriculum in Nigeria. World Educators Forum, 12(1), 1-15.

• Okonkwo, N., & Ifesiokwu, C. (2022). Transformation of teaching and learning for excellence in early childhood care and development education (ECCDE) through effective instructional leadership practices. UNIZIK Journal of Educational Research and Policy Studies, 13(1), 152-170.

• Okorie, A. N. (2010). Administrative theories. In F. Durosaro & S. Ogunsaju (Eds.), The craft of educational management. INDEMAC Print Media, Kwara State.

• Olatunji, M. O., & Ajero, J. I. (2022). An assessment of the implementation process of the Nigerian nine-year basic education curriculum. Journal of Education in Black Sea Region, 7(2), 170-187. https://doi.org/10.31578/jebs.v7i2.270

• Olofu, P. A., Pius, R. F. A. I., & Ochanya, N. M. (2022). Understanding emotional intelligence in leadership: a critical factor for effective leadership in Nigerian university system. Journal of Educational Realities-JERA, 12(1), 1-9.

• Olowonefa, G. S. (2022). Primary school administration in Nigeria: Issues, problems and way forward. International Journal on Integrated Education, 5(2), 54-62.

• Olujuwon, O., & Perumal. J. (2017). Nigerian teachers’ understanding of school leadership practices in public secondary schools. In C. H. Gentles (Ed.), 60th Year Book on Teacher Education (pp. 240-256). International Council on Education for Teaching and The University of West Indies, Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica. https://www.icet4u.org/docs/Jamaica_2016.pdf

• Oyedeji, N. B. (2012). Management in education: Principles and practice. Lap Lambert Academic Publishing.

• Özen, H., & Turan, S. (2017). Scale development and initial tests of the multidimensional complex adaptive leadership scale for school principals: An exploratory mixed-method study. European Journal of Education Studies, 3(12), 37-74. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1098030

• Parylo, O., & Zepeda, S. (2014). Describing and effective principal: perceptions of the central office leaders. School Leadership & Management, 34(5), 518-537. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2014.928684

• Pažur, M. (2020). Development and validation of a research instrument for measuring the presence of democratic school leadership characteristics. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 50(4), 613-629. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220937312

• Posner, B. Z. (2016). Investigating the reliability and validity of the leadership practices inventory. Administrative Science, 6(4), Article 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci6040017

• Prasetyo, M. A. M., Ilham, M., & Asvio, N. (2022). Lecturer professionalism in improving the effectiveness of higher education institutions. International Journal of Educational Review, 4(1), 140-153. https://doi.org/10.33369/ijer.v4i1.22406

• Rabbani, S., Imran, R., Shamoon, S., & Nida, K. (2015). Directive leadership and satisfaction: A unique relationship. Advanced Science Letters, 23(1), 337-340. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2017.7178

• Rad, A. M. M., & Yarmohammadian, M. H. (2006). A study of relationship between managers’ leadership style and employees’ job satisfaction. Leadership in Health Services, 19(2), 11-28.

• Ramay, M. I. (2010). Influence of leadership behavior and participatory pecision making on the employees organizational commitment. [Doctoral Thesis, University of Engineering and technology Taxila]. University Of Engineering and Technology Taxila. http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1686/1/897S.pdf

• Ringle, C. M., Wende, S., & Will, A. (2005). SmartPLS 3.3.3 (Beta) Hamburg. http://www.smartpls.de.

• Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., & Straub, D. W. (2012). Editor’s comments: A critical look at the use of PLS-SEM in MIS quarterly. MIS Quarterly, 36(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.2307/41410402

• Rickley, M., & Stackhouse, M. (2022). Global Leadership Effectiveness: A Multilevel Review and Exploration of the Construct Domain. In J. S. Osland, B. S. Reiche, B. Szkudlarek, & M. E. Mendenhall (Eds.), Advances in Global Leadership (Vol. 14, pp. 87-123). Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1535-120320220000014004

• Sahenk, S. S. (2010). Characteristics of the headmasters, teachers and students in an effective school. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4298-4304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.682

• Shamaki, E. B. (2015) Influence of leadership style on teacher’s job productivity in public secondary schools in Taraba State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(10), 200-203. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/21457/22165

• Somech, A. (2005) Directive versus participative leadership: Two complementary Approaches to managing school effectiveness. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(5), 777 – 800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X05279448

• Supovitz, J., Sirinides, P., & May, H. (2010). How principals and peers influence teaching and learning. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(1), 31-56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670509353043

• Terzi, A. R., & Derin, R. (2016). Relationship between democratic leadership and organizational cynicism. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(3), 193-204.

• Tannenbaum, R., & Schmidt, W. H. (1973). How to choose a leadership pattern. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/1973/05/how-to-choose-a-leadership-pattern

• Torres, C. V. (2000). Leadership style norms among Americans and Brazilians: Assessing differences using Jackson’s return potential model. [Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology]. San Diego ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304547135?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true

• Voorhees, C. M., Brady, M. K., Calantone, R., & Ramirez, E. (2016). Discriminant validity testing in marketing: An analysis, causes for concern, and proposed remedies. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44, 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-015-0455-4

• Wetzels, M., Odekerken-Schreoder, G., & van Oppen, C. (2009). Using PLS path modeling for assessing hierarchical construct models: Guidelines and empirical illustration. MIS Quarterly, 33(1), 177-195. https://doi.org/10.2307/20650284

• Whang, C. (2021). The role of school heads and why they matter during the COVID pandemic. OECD Education and Skills Today. https://oecdedutoday.com/role-school-principals-heads-covid/

• Wu, C., & Parker, S. K. (2014). The role of leader support in facilitating proactive work behaviour: A perspective from attachment theory. Journal of Management, 43(4), 1025-1049. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314544745

• Yusuf, M. A., & Adigun, J. T. (2012). The role of head-teacher in improvisation and maintenance of school plants. African Research Review, 6(3), 232-238. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v6i3.17

• Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Team leadership. The leadership Quarterly, 12(4), 451-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(01)00093-5