PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 

e-ISSN 2231-8526
ISSN 0128-7680

Home / Regular Issue / JST Vol. 29 (3) Jul. 2021 / JST-2204-2020

 

Contact and Non-contact Heart Beat Rate Measurement Techniques: Challenges and Issues

Wei Leong Khong, Muralindran Mariappan and Chee Siang Chong

Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, Volume 29, Issue 3, July 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.29.3.03

Keywords: Electrocardiogram, heart beat rate, oscillometric method, photoplethysmography imaging, photoplethysmography

Published on: 31 July 2021

The heart is the most important organ in the human body as it circulates the blood throughout the body through blood vessels. In the human circulatory system, the heart beats according to the body’s physical needs. Therefore, the physical condition of a person can be determined by observing the heartbeat rate (HBR). There are plenty of methods that can be used to measure the HBR. Among the methods, photoplethysmography (PPG), electrocardiogram (ECG) and the oscillometric method are the standard methods utilised in medical institutes for continuous measurement of the HBR of a patient. Out of these three methods, PPG is the only method which has evolved to a non-contact imaging-based method from the conventional contact sensory based method. The incentive for developing the non-contact-based imaging PPG method in measuring the HBR provides the advantage of excluding the direct contact of sensors on specific body parts. This brings huge improvements to remote monitoring of healthcare especially for the purpose of social distancing. Moreover, the rapid progression of technology (particularly the interactive electronic gadgets advancement) also motivates researchers and engineers to create a mobile application using the PPG imaging method, which is feasible in measuring the HBR. Hence, this study seeks to review and present the fundamental concept, the present research and the evolution of the aforementioned methods in measuring the HBR.

  • 3M Health Care. (2002). History of Stethoscopes. 3M Health Care.

  • Albulbul, A. (2016). Evaluating major electrode types for idle biological signal measurements for modern medical technology. Bioengineering, 3(20), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering3030020

  • Alghatrif, M., & Lindsay, J. (2012). A brief review: History to understand fundamentals of electrocardiography. Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives, 2, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.3402/jchimp.v2i1.14383.

  • Alian, A. A., & Shelley, K. H. (2014). Photoplethysmography. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology, 28(4), 395-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpa.2014.08.006.

  • AliveCor Inc. (2017). Meet kardia mobile: Your personal EKG. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from https://www.alivecor.com/.

  • Aljuaid, M., Marashly, Q., AlDanaf, J., Tawhari, I., Barakat, M., Barakat, R., Zobell, B., Cho, W., Chelu, M. G., & Marrouche, N. F. (2020). Smartphone ECG monitoring system helps lower emergency room and clinic visits in post-atrial fibrillation ablation patients. Clinical Medicine Insights: Cardiology, 14, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1179546820901508.

  • Allen, J. (2007). Photoplethysmography and its application in clinical physiological measurement. Physiological Measurement, 28(3), 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/28/3/R01.

  • Ankhill, A., Tao, X., Cochrane, C., Coulon, D., & Koncar, V. (2018). Washable and reliable textile electrodes embedded into underwear fabric for electrocardiography (ECG) monitoring. Materials, 11(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11020256.

  • Aoyagi, T. (1992). Pulse oximetry: Its origin and development. In Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (pp. 2858-2859). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.1992.5761726

  • Apple Inc. (2020). Monitor your heart rate with apple watch. Retrieved December 24, 2020, from https://support.apple.com/en-my/HT204666.

  • Bianchi, A. M., Mendez, M. O., & Cerutti, S. (2010). Processing of signals recorded through smart devices: Sleep-quality assessment. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine, 14(3), 741-747. https://doi.org/10.1109/TITB.2010.2049025.

  • Bowbrick, S., & Borg, A. N. (2006). ECG complete. Elsevier.

  • Burch, V. G., & DePasquale, J. M. (1990). Development of the contact electrode, a history of electrocardiography. Norman Publishing.

  • Castaneda, D., Esparza, A., Ghamari, M., Soltanpur, C., & Nazeran, H. (2018). A review on wearble photoplehtysmography sensors and their potential future applications in health care. International Journal of Biosensors & Bioelectronics 4(4), 195-202. https://doi.org/10.15406/ijbsbe.2018.04.00125.

  • Deng, Y., Kumar, A. (2020). Standoff heart rate estimation from video: A review. In Mobile Multimedia/Image Processing, Security, and Applications 2020 (Vol. 11399, p. 1139906). International Society for Optics and Photonics.https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2560683.

  • Desteghe, L., Raymaekers, Z., Lutin, M., Vijgen, J., Dilling-Boer, D., Koopman, P., Schurmans, J., Vanduynhoven, P., Dendale, P., & Heidbuchel, H. (2017). Performance of handheld electrocardiogram devices to detect atrial fibrillation in a cardiology and geriatric ward setting. Europace, 19, 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1093/europace/euw025.

  • Drzewiecki, G. (2003). Noninvasive arterial blood pressure and mechanics. In J. D. Bronzino (Ed.), Clinical engineering: Principles and applications in engneering series (pp. 15-16). CRC Press.

  • Fisch, C. (2000). Centennial of the string galcanometer and the electrocardiogram. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 36(6), 1737-1745. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00976-1.

  • Fleming, P. R. (1997). The beginnings of clinical science: 1860-1900. In A short history of cardiology (pp. 106-127). Brill Rodopi.

  • Forouzanfar, M., Dajani, H. R., Groza, V. Z., Bolic, M., Rajan, S., & Batkin, I. (2015). Oscillometric blood pressure estimation: Past, present, and future. IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering, 8, 44-63. https://doi.org/10.1109/RBME.2015.2434215.

  • Fye, W. B. (1994). A history of the origin, evolution, and impact of electrocardiography. The American Journal of Cardiology, 73(13), 937-949. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(94)90135-x.

  • Gargiulo, G. D. (2015). True unipolar ECG machine for Wilson central terminal measurements. BioMed Research International, 2015, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/586397.

  • Gastel, M. V., Stuijk, S., & de Haan, G. (2016). New principle for measuring arterial blood oxygenation, enabling motion-robust remote monitoring. Scientific Reports, 6(38609), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38609.

  • Geddes, L. A. (1991). Handbook of blood presure measurement. Springer Science.

  • Geddes, L. A., & Wald, A. (2000). Retrospectroscope: Horatio B Williams and the first electrocardiographs made in the United States. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 19(5), 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1109/51.870240.

  • Ghasemzadeh, N., & Zafari, A. M. (2011). A brief journey into the history of the arterial pulse. Cardiology Research and Practice, 2011, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/164832.

  • Gudi, A., Bittner, M., & Gemert, J. (2020). Real-time webcam heart-rate and variability estimation with clean ground truth for evaluation. Applied Sciences, 10, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238630.

  • Hashem, M. M. A., Shams, R., Kader, M. A., & Sayed, M. A. (2010). Design and development of a heart rate measuring device using fingertip. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering (pp. 1-5). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCCE.2010.5556841

  • Hu, S., Zheng, J., Chouliaras, V., & Summers, R. (2008). Feasibility of imaging photoplethysmography. In Proceedings of the International Conference on BioMedial Engineering and Informatics (pp. 72-75). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/BMEI.2008.365

  • Kapse, C. D., & Patil, B. R. (2013). Auscultatory and oscillometric methods of blood pressure measurement: A Survey. International Journal of Engneering Research and Applications, 3(2), 528-533.

  • Karaoguz, M. R., Yurtseven, E., Aslan, G., Deliormanli, B. G., Adiguzel, O., Gonen, M., Li, K. M., & Yilmza, E. N. (2019). The quality of ECG data acquisition, and diagnostic performance of a novel adhesive patch for ambulatory cardiac rhythm monitoring in arrhythmia detection. Electrocardiology, 54, 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j/jelectrocard.2019.02.012.

  • Kastor, J. A. (2002). Encyclopedia of life sciences. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, Nature Publishing Group.

  • Katz, L. N., & Hellerstein, H. K. (1982). Circulation of the blood: Men and Ideas. Springer.

  • Kebe, M., Gadhafi, R., Mohammad, B., Sanduleanu, M., Saleh, H., & Al-Qutayri, M. (2020). Human vital signs detection methods and potential using radars: A review. Sensors, 20(5), 1-38. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20051454.

  • Kher, R., & Vidyanagar, V. (2019). Signal processing techniques for removing noise from ECG signals. Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Research, 3(101), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.17303/jber.2019.3.101.

  • Khong, W. L., & Mariappan, M. (2019). The evolution of heart beat rate measurement techniques from contact based photoplethysmography to non-contact based photoplethysmography imaging. In Proceedings of IEEE International Circuits and Systems Symposium (pp. 1-4). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSyS47076.2019.8982534

  • Khong, W. L., Rao, N. S. V. K., & Mariappan, M. (2017). Blood pressure measurements using non-contact video imaging techniques. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Automatic Control and Intelligent Systems (pp. 35-40). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/I2CACIS.2017.8239029

  • Khong, W. L., Rao, N. S. V. K., Mariappan, M., & Nadarajan, M. (2016). Analysis of heart beat rate through video imaging techniques. Journal of Telecommunication, Electronic and Computer Engineering, 8(11), 69-74.

  • Krikler, D. M. (1983). Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: Long follow-up and an anglo-american historical note. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2(6), 1216-1218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(83)80353-2.

  • Kwon, S., Kim, H., & Park, K. S. (2012). Validation of heart rate extraction using video imaging on a built-in camera system of a smartphone. In Proceedings of 34th Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS (pp. 2174-2177). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346392

  • Laurent, C., Jonsson, B., Vegfors, M., & Lindberg, L. G. (2005). Non-invasive measurement of systolic blood pressure on the arm utilising photoplethysmography: Development of the methodology. Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing, 43, 131-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02345134.

  • Lemay, M., Bertschi, M., Sola, J., Renevey, P., Parak, J., & Korhonen, I. (2014). Wearable sensors: Fundamentals, implementation and applications. Elsevier Inc.

  • Leng, S., Tan, R. S., Chai, K. T. C., Wang, C., Ghista, D., & Zhong, L. (2015). The electronic stethoscope. BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 14(66), 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-015-0056-y.

  • Lewandowska, M., Ruminski, J., Kocejko, T., & Nowak, J. (2011). Measuring pulse rate with a webcam – A non-contact method for evaluating cardiac activity. In Proceedings of the Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems (pp. 405-410). IEEE Conference Publication.

  • Macwan, R., Benezeth, Y., & Mansouri, A, (2018). Remote photoplethysmography with constrained ICA using periodicity and chrominance constraints. BioMedical Engineering Online, 17(22), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-018-0450-3.

  • Madihally, S. V. (2010). Principles of biomedical engineering. Artect House.

  • Mahgoub, M. T. A., Khalifa, O. O., Sidek, K. A., & Khan, S. (2015). Health monitoring system using pulse oximeter with remote alert. In Proceedings of International Conference on Computing, Control, Networking, Electronics and Embedded Systems Engineering (pp. 357-361). IEEE Conference Publication. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCNEEE.2015.7381391

  • Man-Son-Hing, C. T. (1968). The diagnosis of treatable cerebrovascular disease. Canadian Family Physician, 14(9), 23-25.

  • Mohaddes, F., da Silva, R. L., Akbulut, F. P., Zhou, Y., Tanneeru, A., Lobaton, E., Lee B., & Misra, V. (2020). A pipeline for adaptive filtering and transformation of noisy left-arm ECG to its surrogate chest signal. Electronics, 9(866), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9050866.

  • Nonin Medical Inc. (2014). A global leader in noninvasive medical monitoring innovations. Nonin Medical Inc.

  • Ohmeda. (1986). Ohmeda biox 3700 pulse oximeter operating / Maintenance manual. BOC Health Care.

  • Parati, G., Stergiou, G. S., Asmar, R., Bilo, G., de Leeuw, P., Imai, Y., Kario, K., Lurbe, E., Manolis, A., Mengden, T., O’Brien, E., Ohkubo, T., Padfield, P., Palatini, P., Pickering, T., Redon, J., Revera, M., Ruilope, L. M., Shennan, A., … & Mancia, G. (2008). European society of hypertension guidelines for blood pressure monitoring at home: A summary report of the second international consensus conference on home blood pressure monitoring. Journal of Hypertension, 26(8), 1505-1526. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e328308da66.

  • Perepelkina, O., Artemyev, M., Churikova, M. & Grinenko, M. (2020). HeartTrack: Convolution neural network for remote video-based heart rate monitoring. In IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (pp. 1163-1171). IEEE Conference Publication.

  • Poh, M. Z., McDuff, D. J., & Picard, R. W. (2010). Non-contact, automated cardiac pulse measurement using video imaging and blind source separation. Optics Express, 18(10), 10762-10774. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.18.010762.

  • Roguin, A. (2006). Rene theophile hyacinthe laennec (1781-1826): The man behind the stethoscope. Clinical Medicine & Research, 4(3), 230-235. https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.4.3.230.

  • Serhani, M. A., Kassabi, H. T. E., Ismail, H., & Navaz, A. N. (2020). ECG monitoring systems: Review, architecture, processes, and key challenges. Sensors, 20(1796), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20061796.

  • Severinghaus, J. W. (2007). Takuo aoyagi: Discovery of pulse oximetry. International Anesthesia & Analgesia, 105(6), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1213/01.ane.0000269514.31660.09.

  • Severinghaus, J. W. (2014). The wondrous story of anesthesia. Springer.

  • Shcherbina, A., Mattsson, C. M., Waggott, D., Salisbury, H., Christle, J. W., Hastie, T., Wheeler, M. T., & Ashley, E. A. (2017). Accuracy in wrist-worn, sensor-based measurements of heart rate and energy expenditure in a diverse cohort. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 7(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm7020003.

  • Sim, J. K., Ahn, B., & Doh, I. (2018). A contact-force regulated photoplethysmography (PPG) platform. AIP Advances, 8, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5020914.

  • Sinagra, D., & Dip, F. (2015). Technological advances in surgery, trauma, and critical care. Springer.

  • Sinhal, R., Singh, K., Raghuwanshi, M. M. (2020). Computer vision and machine intelligence in medical image analysis, advances in intelligent systems and computing. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

  • Srinivasan, N. T., & Schilling, R. J. (2018). Sudden cardiac death and arrhythmias. Arrhythmia & Electrophysiology Review, 7(2), 111-117. https://doi.org/10.15420/aer.2018:15:2.

  • Sukaphat, S., Nanthachaiporn, S., Upphaccha, K., & Tantipatrakul, P. (2016). Heart rate measurement on android platform. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (pp. 1-5). IEEE Conference Publication.

  • Takano, C., & Ohta, Y. (2007). Heart rate measurement based on a time-lapse image. Medical Engneering & Physics, 29(8), 853-857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2006.09.006.

  • Tamura, T. (2019). Current progress of photoplethysmography and SPO2 for health monitoring. Biomedical Engineering Letters, 9, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13534-019-00097-w.

  • Tarassenko, L., Vilarroel, M., Guazzi, A., Jorge, J., Clifton, D. A., & Pugh, C. (2014). Non-contact video-based vital sign monitoring using ambient light and auto-regressive models. Physiological Measurement, 35(5), 807-831. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/35/5/807.

  • Tjahjadi, H., Ramli, K., & Murfi, H. (2020). Noninvasive classification of blood pressure based on photoplethysmography signals using bidirectional long short-term memory and time-frequency analysis. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Section, 8, 20735-20748. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2968967.

  • UW Health. (2016). Holter monitoring: A guide to help you get ready. University of Wisconsin-Madison.

  • van der Kooji, K. M., & Naber, M. (2019). An open-source remote heart rate imaging method with practical apparatus and algorithms. Behavior Research Methods, 51, 2106-2119. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01256-8.

  • Verkruysse, W., Svaasand, L. O., & Nelson, J. S. (2008). Remote plethysmographic imaging using ambient light. Optics Express, 16(26), 21434-21445. https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.16.021434.

  • Yamakoshi, T., Matsumura, K., Rolfe, P., Hanaki, S., Ikarashi, A., Lee, J., & Yamakoshi, K. I. (2014). Potential for health screening using long-term cardiovascular parameters measured by finger volume-oscillometry: Pilot comparative evaluation in regular and sleep-deprived activities. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics, 18(1), 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1109/JBHI.2013.2274460.

  • Yang, X. L., Liu, G. Z., Tong, Y. H., Yan, H., Xu, Z., Chen, Q., Liu, X., Zhang, H. H., Wang, H. B., & Tan, S. H. (2015). The history, hotspot, and trends of electrocardiogram. Journal of Geriatric Cardiology, 12(4), 448-456. https://doi.org/10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2015.04.018.

  • Zhan, Q., Wang, W., & de Haan, G. (2020). Analysis of CNN-based remote-PPG to understand limitations and sensitives. Biomedical Optics Express, 11(3), 1268-1283. https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.382637.

  • Zhang, Z. (2015). Photoplethysmography-based heart rate monitoring in physical activities via joint sparse spectrum reconstruction. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 62(8), 1902-1910. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2015.2406332.

  • Zhao, F., Li, M., Qian, Y., & Tsein, J. Z. (2013). Remote measurements of heart and respiration rates for telemedicine. PLoS ONE, 8(10), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071384.

  • Zhao, Y. (2016). An improved method for blind source separation. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Mechanics, Electronics and Mechatronic Engineering (pp. 1-5). DEStech Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.12783/dtetr/ameme2016/5786

  • Zheng, J., & Hu, S. (2007). The preliminary investigation of imaging photoplethysmographic system. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 85, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/85/1/012031.

ISSN 0128-7680

e-ISSN 2231-8526

Article ID

JST-2204-2020

Download Full Article PDF

Share this article

Recent Articles