PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

This study investigated the contamination level and risk associated with toxic trace elements in springs’ water from Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Toxic trace elements, including Hg, As, and Zn, were analyzed by metalyzer, HM 2000 serial no. MY-011-006, while elements such as Cr, Al, B, Ni, Cu, Mn, and Fe were analyzed using Metalometer HM 2000 serial no. MM005-007, the United Kingdom. The mean concentrations of TTEs in water samples from Skardu were ordered as, Mn < Cu < Fe < Zn < Al < Cr < As < Ni < Hg, in Gilgit, Mn < Cu < Zn < Ni < B < Cr < Fe < As < Hg, in Ghizer Cu < Mn < Zn < Ni < Cr < Fe < As < Hg, while in Nagar the concentration of TTEs in water samples were ordered as Cu < Mn < Fe < Ni < Al < Cr < Zn < As < Hg. Results obtained from this study showed that the concentrations of As, Hg, Ni, Cr, Al, and Mn in some water samples were higher than the limits recommended by WHO and Pak-NDWQS. However, the chronic daily intake indices (CDIs) and health risk index (HRI) in all samples were found below the US-EPA standards. The correlation analysis revealed a positive association among different elements, which revealed that the sources of TTES in water samples were mainly geological strata and anthropogenic activities.

• Ahmed, N., Bodrud-Doza, M., Islam, A. R. M. T., Hossain, S., Moniruzzaman, M., Deb, N., & Bhuiyan, M. A. Q. (2019). Appraising spatial variations of As, Fe, Mn and NO3 contaminations associated health risks of drinking water from Surma basin, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 218, 726-740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.104

• Ali, S., & Rubina, S. H. (2018). Assessment of freshwater springs, associated diseases and indigenous perception in Ghizer, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 34(1), 121-124.

• Ali, U., Batool, A., Ghufran, M., Asad-Ghufran, M., Sabahat-Kazmi, S., & Hina-Fatimah, S. (2019). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in the drinking water of muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. International Journal of Hydrology, 3(5), 331-337. https://doi.org/10.15406/ijh.2019.03.00196

• Alidadi, H., Tavakoly Sany, S. B., Zarif Garaati Oftadeh, B., Mohamad, T., Shamszade, H., & Fakhari, M. (2019). Health risk assessments of arsenic and toxic heavy metal exposure in drinking water in northeast Iran. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 24, Article 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0812-x

• Alina, M., Azrina, A., Yunus, A. M., Zakiuddin, S. M., Effendi, H. M. I., & Rizal, R. M. (2012). Heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, plumbum) in selected marine fish and shellfish along the Straits of Malacca. International Food Research Journal, 19(1), 135-140.

• Arif, M., Henry, D., & Moon, C. (2011). Host rock characteristics and source of chromium and beryllium for emerald mineralization in the ophiolitic rocks of the Indus Suture Zone in Swat, NW Pakistan. Ore Geology Reviews, 39(1-2), 1-20.

• Bortey-Sam, N., Nakayama, S. M., Ikenaka, Y., Akoto, O., Baidoo, E., Mizukawa, H., & Ishizuka, M. (2015). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and metalloid in drinking water from communities near gold mines in Tarkwa, Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, Article 397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4630-3

• Dessie, B. K., Gari, S. R., Mihret, A., Desta, A. F., & Mehari, B. (2021). Determination and health risk assessment of trace elements in the tap water of two Sub-Cities of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Heliyon, 7(5), Article e06988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06988

• Dieter, H. H., Bayer, T. A., & Multhaup, G. (2005). Environmental copper and manganese in the pathophysiology of neurologic diseases (Alzheimer’s disease and Manganism). Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiologica, 33(1), 72-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/aheh.200400556

• Habib, M. A., Islam, A. R. M. T., Bodrud-Doza, M., Mukta, F. A., Khan, R., Siddique, M. A. B., Phoungthong, K., & Techato, K. (2020). Simultaneous appraisals of pathway and probable health risk associated with trace metals contamination in groundwater from Barapukuria coal basin, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 242, Article 125183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125183

• Huma-Khan, N., Nafees, M., & Bashir, A. (2016). Study of heavy metals in soil and wheat crop and their transfer to food chain. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 32(2), 70-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2016/32.2.70.79

• Hussain, R., Wei, C., & Luo, K. (2019). Hydrogeochemical characteristics, source identification and health risks of surface water and groundwater in mining and non-mining areas of Handan, China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78, Article 402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8350-9

• Islam, A. R. M. T., Islam, H. T., Mia, M. U., Khan, R., Habib, M. A., Bodrud-Doza, M., Siddique, M. A. B., & Chu, R. (2020). Co-distribution, possible origins, status and potential health risk of trace elements in surface water sources from six major river basins, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 249, Article 126180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126180

• Ji, Y., Wu, J., Wang, Y., Elumalai, V., & Subramani, T. (2020). Seasonal variation of drinking water quality and human health risk assessment in Hancheng City of Guanzhong Plain, China. Exposure and Health, 12, 469-485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00357-6

• Jiang, Z., Xu, N., Liu, B., Zhou, L., Wang, J., Wang, C., Dai, B., & Xiong, W. (2018). Metal concentrations and risk assessment in water, sediment and economic fish species with various habitat preferences and trophic guilds from Lake Caizi, Southeast China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 157, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.078

• Kavcar, P., Sofuoglu, A., & Sofuoglu, S. C. (2009). A health risk assessment for exposure to trace metals via drinking water ingestion pathway. International Journal of Hygiene And Environmental Health, 212(2), 216-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.05.002

• Khan, S., Rauf, R., Muhammad, S., Qasim, M., & Din, I. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metals health risk assessment through drinking water consumption in the Peshawar District, Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(3), 581-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2015.1083845

• Khan, T. A. (2011). Trace elements in the drinking water and their possible health effects in Aligarh City, India. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 3(7), 522-530. https://doi.org/doi:10.4236/jwarp.2011.37062

• Khan, A., Ahmad, I., Waqarullah, ul Zia, I., & Zakirullah. (2015). Field report of Gilgit-Baltistan. https://pdfcookie.com/documents/geological-field-report-of-gilgit-baltistan-by-arsalan-khan-5lq3yxmqd8v7

• Kisku, G. C., Pandey, P., Negi, M. P. S., & Misra, V. (2011). Uptake and accumulation of potentially toxic metals (Zn, Cu and Pb) in soils and plants of Durgapur industrial belt. Journal of Environmental Biology, 32(6), 831-838.

• Krishna, A. K., Satyanarayanan, M., & Govil, P. K. (2009). Assessment of heavy metal pollution in water using multivariate statistical techniques in an industrial area: A case study from Patancheru, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 167(1-3), 366-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.12.131

• Lambert, M., Leven, B., & Green, R. (2000). New methods of cleaning up heavy metal in soils and water. Hazardous Substance Research Centres. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.files/fileID/14295

• Maigari, A., Ekanem, E., Garba, I., Harami, A., & Akan, J. (2016). Health risk assessment for exposure to some selected heavy metals via drinking water from Dadinkowa dam and river gombe abba in Gombe state, Northeast Nigeria. World Journal Analytical Chemistry, 4(1), 1-5.

• Malsiu, A., Shehu, I., Stafilov, T., & Faiku, F. (2020). Assessment of heavy metal concentrations with fractionation method in sediments and waters of the Badovci Lake (Kosovo). Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2020, Article 3098594https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3098594

• Mohammadi, A. A., Zarei, A., Majidi, S., Ghaderpoury, A., Hashempour, Y., Saghi, M. H., Alinejad, A., Yousefi, M., Hosseinngholizadeh, N., & Ghaderpoori, M. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Khorramabad, Iran. MethodsX, 6, 1642-1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017

• Mohmand, J., Eqani, S. A. M. A. S., Fasola, M., Alamdar, A., Mustafa, I., Ali, N., Liu, L., Peng, S., & Shen, H. (2015). Human exposure to toxic metals via contaminated dust: Bio-accumulation trends and their potential risk estimation. Chemosphere, 132, 142-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.004

• Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2010). Arsenic health risk assessment in drinking water and source apportionment using multivariate statistical techniques in Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48(10), 2855-2864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.018

• Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2011). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 98(2), 334-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2011.03.003

• Muhammad, S., Ullah, R., & Jadoon, I. A. (2019). Heavy metals contamination in soil and food and their evaluation for risk assessment in the Zhob and Loralai valleys, Baluchistan province, Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 149, Article 103971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.103971

• Muhammad Tahir, S., Suleman, M., Abdul Baqi, S., Sattar, A., & Khan, N. (2020). Determination of heavy metals in drinking water and their adverse effects on human health. A review. Pure and Applied Biology (PAB), 9(1), 96-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90012

• Murtaza, B., Amjad, M., Shahid, M., Imran, M., Shah, N. S., Abbas, G., & Naeem, M. A. (2020). Compositional and health risk assessment of drinking water from health facilities of District Vehari, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42, 2425-2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00465-6

• Pidwirny. (2006). Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks. Physical Geography.net. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10g.html

• Rasool, A., Xiao, T., Farooqi, A., Shafeeque, M., Masood, S., Ali, S., Fahad, S., & Nasim, W. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metal contaminations in the tube well water of Punjab, Pakistan and risk assessment: A case study. Ecological Engineering, 95, 90-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.06.034

• Sadeghi, P., Loghmani, M., & Frokhzad, S. (2020). Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of commercial marine fish (Thunnus albacares, Euthynnus affinis, and Katsuwonus pelamis) in Oman Sea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 14944-14952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07907-0

• Saleh, H. N., Panahande, M., Yousefi, M., Asghari, F. B., Oliveri Conti, G., Talaee, E., & Mohammadi, A. A. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater wells in Neyshabur Plain, Iran. Biological Trace Element Research, 190, 251-261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1516-6

• Sharma, R. K., Agrawal, M., & Marshall, F. M. (2008). Heavy metal (Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb) contamination of vegetables in urban India: A case study in Varanasi. Environmental Pollution, 154(2), 254-263.

• Stephanie, S. (2010). Trace elements. Current Anaesthesia & Critical Care, 21(1), 44-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacc.2009.08.004

• USEPA. (2003). Technical Standard Operating Procedure (SOP EH- 01). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment

• USEPA. (2005, March). Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment (EPA/630/P-03/001F). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment

• Vetrimurugan, E., Brindha, K., Elango, L., & Ndwandwe, O. M. (2017). Human exposure risk to heavy metals through groundwater used for drinking in an intensively irrigated river delta. Applied Water Science, 7, 3267-3280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0472-6

• Wasserman, G. A., Liu, X., Parvez, F., Ahsan, H., Levy, D., Factor-Litvak, P., Kline, J., Geen, A. V., Slavkovich, V., Lolacono, N. J., Cheng, Z., Zheng, Yan., & Graziano, J. H. (2006). Water manganese exposure and children’s intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), 124-129. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8030

• WWF. (2009). Climate Change Resilience in Gilgit. https://www.wwfpak.org/our_work_/climate_and_energy_/climate_change_resilience_in_gilgit_/

• Yang, F., & Massey, I. Y. (2019). Exposure routes and health effects of heavy metals on children. Biometals, 32, 563-573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-019-00193-5

• Zhang, Y., Sillanpää, M., Li, C., Guo, J., Qu, B., & Kang, S. (2015). River water quality across the Himalayan regions: Elemental concentrations in headwaters of Yarlung Tsangbo, Indus and Ganges River. Environmental Earth Sciences, 73, 4151-4163.

• Ahmed, N., Bodrud-Doza, M., Islam, A. R. M. T., Hossain, S., Moniruzzaman, M., Deb, N., & Bhuiyan, M. A. Q. (2019). Appraising spatial variations of As, Fe, Mn and NO3 contaminations associated health risks of drinking water from Surma basin, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 218, 726-740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.104

• Ali, S., & Rubina, S. H. (2018). Assessment of freshwater springs, associated diseases and indigenous perception in Ghizer, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 34(1), 121-124.

• Ali, U., Batool, A., Ghufran, M., Asad-Ghufran, M., Sabahat-Kazmi, S., & Hina-Fatimah, S. (2019). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in the drinking water of muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. International Journal of Hydrology, 3(5), 331-337. https://doi.org/10.15406/ijh.2019.03.00196

• Alidadi, H., Tavakoly Sany, S. B., Zarif Garaati Oftadeh, B., Mohamad, T., Shamszade, H., & Fakhari, M. (2019). Health risk assessments of arsenic and toxic heavy metal exposure in drinking water in northeast Iran. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 24, Article 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0812-x

• Alina, M., Azrina, A., Yunus, A. M., Zakiuddin, S. M., Effendi, H. M. I., & Rizal, R. M. (2012). Heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, plumbum) in selected marine fish and shellfish along the Straits of Malacca. International Food Research Journal, 19(1), 135-140.

• Arif, M., Henry, D., & Moon, C. (2011). Host rock characteristics and source of chromium and beryllium for emerald mineralization in the ophiolitic rocks of the Indus Suture Zone in Swat, NW Pakistan. Ore Geology Reviews, 39(1-2), 1-20.

• Bortey-Sam, N., Nakayama, S. M., Ikenaka, Y., Akoto, O., Baidoo, E., Mizukawa, H., & Ishizuka, M. (2015). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and metalloid in drinking water from communities near gold mines in Tarkwa, Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, Article 397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4630-3

• Dessie, B. K., Gari, S. R., Mihret, A., Desta, A. F., & Mehari, B. (2021). Determination and health risk assessment of trace elements in the tap water of two Sub-Cities of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Heliyon, 7(5), Article e06988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06988

• Dieter, H. H., Bayer, T. A., & Multhaup, G. (2005). Environmental copper and manganese in the pathophysiology of neurologic diseases (Alzheimer’s disease and Manganism). Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiologica, 33(1), 72-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/aheh.200400556

• Habib, M. A., Islam, A. R. M. T., Bodrud-Doza, M., Mukta, F. A., Khan, R., Siddique, M. A. B., Phoungthong, K., & Techato, K. (2020). Simultaneous appraisals of pathway and probable health risk associated with trace metals contamination in groundwater from Barapukuria coal basin, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 242, Article 125183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125183

• Huma-Khan, N., Nafees, M., & Bashir, A. (2016). Study of heavy metals in soil and wheat crop and their transfer to food chain. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 32(2), 70-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2016/32.2.70.79

• Hussain, R., Wei, C., & Luo, K. (2019). Hydrogeochemical characteristics, source identification and health risks of surface water and groundwater in mining and non-mining areas of Handan, China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78, Article 402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8350-9

• Islam, A. R. M. T., Islam, H. T., Mia, M. U., Khan, R., Habib, M. A., Bodrud-Doza, M., Siddique, M. A. B., & Chu, R. (2020). Co-distribution, possible origins, status and potential health risk of trace elements in surface water sources from six major river basins, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 249, Article 126180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126180

• Ji, Y., Wu, J., Wang, Y., Elumalai, V., & Subramani, T. (2020). Seasonal variation of drinking water quality and human health risk assessment in Hancheng City of Guanzhong Plain, China. Exposure and Health, 12, 469-485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00357-6

• Jiang, Z., Xu, N., Liu, B., Zhou, L., Wang, J., Wang, C., Dai, B., & Xiong, W. (2018). Metal concentrations and risk assessment in water, sediment and economic fish species with various habitat preferences and trophic guilds from Lake Caizi, Southeast China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 157, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.078

• Kavcar, P., Sofuoglu, A., & Sofuoglu, S. C. (2009). A health risk assessment for exposure to trace metals via drinking water ingestion pathway. International Journal of Hygiene And Environmental Health, 212(2), 216-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.05.002

• Khan, S., Rauf, R., Muhammad, S., Qasim, M., & Din, I. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metals health risk assessment through drinking water consumption in the Peshawar District, Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(3), 581-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2015.1083845

• Khan, T. A. (2011). Trace elements in the drinking water and their possible health effects in Aligarh City, India. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 3(7), 522-530. https://doi.org/doi:10.4236/jwarp.2011.37062

• Khan, A., Ahmad, I., Waqarullah, ul Zia, I., & Zakirullah. (2015). Field report of Gilgit-Baltistan. https://pdfcookie.com/documents/geological-field-report-of-gilgit-baltistan-by-arsalan-khan-5lq3yxmqd8v7

• Kisku, G. C., Pandey, P., Negi, M. P. S., & Misra, V. (2011). Uptake and accumulation of potentially toxic metals (Zn, Cu and Pb) in soils and plants of Durgapur industrial belt. Journal of Environmental Biology, 32(6), 831-838.

• Krishna, A. K., Satyanarayanan, M., & Govil, P. K. (2009). Assessment of heavy metal pollution in water using multivariate statistical techniques in an industrial area: A case study from Patancheru, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 167(1-3), 366-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.12.131

• Lambert, M., Leven, B., & Green, R. (2000). New methods of cleaning up heavy metal in soils and water. Hazardous Substance Research Centres. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.files/fileID/14295

• Maigari, A., Ekanem, E., Garba, I., Harami, A., & Akan, J. (2016). Health risk assessment for exposure to some selected heavy metals via drinking water from Dadinkowa dam and river gombe abba in Gombe state, Northeast Nigeria. World Journal Analytical Chemistry, 4(1), 1-5.

• Malsiu, A., Shehu, I., Stafilov, T., & Faiku, F. (2020). Assessment of heavy metal concentrations with fractionation method in sediments and waters of the Badovci Lake (Kosovo). Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2020, Article 3098594https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3098594

• Mohammadi, A. A., Zarei, A., Majidi, S., Ghaderpoury, A., Hashempour, Y., Saghi, M. H., Alinejad, A., Yousefi, M., Hosseinngholizadeh, N., & Ghaderpoori, M. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Khorramabad, Iran. MethodsX, 6, 1642-1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017

• Mohmand, J., Eqani, S. A. M. A. S., Fasola, M., Alamdar, A., Mustafa, I., Ali, N., Liu, L., Peng, S., & Shen, H. (2015). Human exposure to toxic metals via contaminated dust: Bio-accumulation trends and their potential risk estimation. Chemosphere, 132, 142-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.004

• Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2010). Arsenic health risk assessment in drinking water and source apportionment using multivariate statistical techniques in Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48(10), 2855-2864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.018

• Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2011). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 98(2), 334-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2011.03.003

• Muhammad, S., Ullah, R., & Jadoon, I. A. (2019). Heavy metals contamination in soil and food and their evaluation for risk assessment in the Zhob and Loralai valleys, Baluchistan province, Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 149, Article 103971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.103971

• Muhammad Tahir, S., Suleman, M., Abdul Baqi, S., Sattar, A., & Khan, N. (2020). Determination of heavy metals in drinking water and their adverse effects on human health. A review. Pure and Applied Biology (PAB), 9(1), 96-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90012

• Murtaza, B., Amjad, M., Shahid, M., Imran, M., Shah, N. S., Abbas, G., & Naeem, M. A. (2020). Compositional and health risk assessment of drinking water from health facilities of District Vehari, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42, 2425-2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00465-6

• Pidwirny. (2006). Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks. Physical Geography.net. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10g.html

• Rasool, A., Xiao, T., Farooqi, A., Shafeeque, M., Masood, S., Ali, S., Fahad, S., & Nasim, W. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metal contaminations in the tube well water of Punjab, Pakistan and risk assessment: A case study. Ecological Engineering, 95, 90-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.06.034

• Sadeghi, P., Loghmani, M., & Frokhzad, S. (2020). Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of commercial marine fish (Thunnus albacares, Euthynnus affinis, and Katsuwonus pelamis) in Oman Sea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 14944-14952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07907-0

• Saleh, H. N., Panahande, M., Yousefi, M., Asghari, F. B., Oliveri Conti, G., Talaee, E., & Mohammadi, A. A. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater wells in Neyshabur Plain, Iran. Biological Trace Element Research, 190, 251-261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1516-6

• Sharma, R. K., Agrawal, M., & Marshall, F. M. (2008). Heavy metal (Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb) contamination of vegetables in urban India: A case study in Varanasi. Environmental Pollution, 154(2), 254-263.

• Stephanie, S. (2010). Trace elements. Current Anaesthesia & Critical Care, 21(1), 44-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacc.2009.08.004

• USEPA. (2003). Technical Standard Operating Procedure (SOP EH- 01). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment

• USEPA. (2005, March). Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment (EPA/630/P-03/001F). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment

• Vetrimurugan, E., Brindha, K., Elango, L., & Ndwandwe, O. M. (2017). Human exposure risk to heavy metals through groundwater used for drinking in an intensively irrigated river delta. Applied Water Science, 7, 3267-3280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0472-6

• Wasserman, G. A., Liu, X., Parvez, F., Ahsan, H., Levy, D., Factor-Litvak, P., Kline, J., Geen, A. V., Slavkovich, V., Lolacono, N. J., Cheng, Z., Zheng, Yan., & Graziano, J. H. (2006). Water manganese exposure and children’s intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), 124-129. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8030

• WWF. (2009). Climate Change Resilience in Gilgit. https://www.wwfpak.org/our_work_/climate_and_energy_/climate_change_resilience_in_gilgit_/

• Yang, F., & Massey, I. Y. (2019). Exposure routes and health effects of heavy metals on children. Biometals, 32, 563-573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-019-00193-5

• Zhang, Y., Sillanpää, M., Li, C., Guo, J., Qu, B., & Kang, S. (2015). River water quality across the Himalayan regions: Elemental concentrations in headwaters of Yarlung Tsangbo, Indus and Ganges River. Environmental Earth Sciences, 73, 4151-4163.