Veterinary hospitals are important locations for various sick and immunocompromised animal patients. These centers may act as reservoirs for nosocomial diseases such as Salmonella infection, one of the most common causes of healthcare-associated infections in veterinary hospitals. The study was performed at the Large Animal Ward (LAW), University Veterinary Hospital, Universiti Putra Malaysia, to assess the environment’s degree of Salmonella spp. contamination. Environmental samples were obtained from various floor and surface areas in the LAW using sterile, moistened gauze. Salmonella spp. was determined using conventional bacteriological culture on all samples. Positive Salmonella isolates were subject to antimicrobial sensitivity testing. A total of 6 out of 135 (4.4%) samples were found to be positive for Salmonella spp., with 5/116 (4.3%) samples obtained from the ward environment and 1/19 (5.3%) obtained from reusable equipment. Antimicrobial sensitivity testing revealed three resistance profiles: all isolates were resistant to penicillin and enrofloxacin, one isolate was resistant to streptomycin, and one was resistant to gentamicin. The results indicate that animal treatment areas within the LAW can become contaminated with Salmonella spp. This study highlights the importance of improving biosecurity programs to prevent nosocomial diseases in patients and the hospital environment.

• Aceto, H., Rankin, S. C., Dallap, B. L., Dolente, B., Munro, D. S., Benson Charles, C. E., & Smith G. (2006). Salmonella infection at a veterinary teaching hospital: The University of Pennsylvania experience. https://www.usaha.org/upload/Proceedings/2006_USAHA_Proceedings.pdf

• Adzitey, F., Rusul, G., & Huda, N. (2012). Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella serovars in ducks, duck rearing and processing environments in Penang, Malaysia. Food Research International, 45(2), 947–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.051

• Alinovi, C. A., Ward, M. P., Couëtil, L. L., & Wu, C. C. (2003). Detection of Salmonella organisms and assessment of a protocol for removal of contamination in horse stalls at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 223(11), 1640–1644. https://doi.org/10.2460/JAVMA.2003.223.1640

• Amavisit, P., Markham, P. F., Lightfoot, D., Whithear, K. G., & Browning, G. F. (2001). Molecular epidemiology of Salmonella Heidelberg in an equine hospital. Veterinary Microbiology, 80(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1135(00)00373-4

• Anderson, M. E. C., & Weese, J. S. (2022). Video observation of hand hygiene practices at a petting zoo and the impact of hand hygiene interventions. Epidemiology and Infection, 140(1), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026881100029X

• Australian Veterinary Association. (2017). Guidelines for veterinary personal biosecurity. AVA. https://www.ava.com.au/siteassets/resources/veterinary-personal-biosecurity/guidelines-for-veterinary-personal-biosecurity-2017-final.pdf

• Bauer, A. W., Kirby, W. M. M., Sherris, J. C., & Turck, M. (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 45(3), 493–496.

• Bean, N. H., & Griffin, P. M. (1990). Foodborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1973-1987: Pathogens, vehicles, and trends. Journal of Food Protection, 53(9), 804–817. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-53.9.804

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2015). Veterinary hospital surveillance systems. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 45(2), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.11.002

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2018). Risk factors for veterinary hospital environmental contamination with Salmonella enterica. Epidemiology and Infection, 146(10), 1282–1292. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268818001164

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2019). Risk factors for shedding of Salmonella enterica among hospitalized large animals over a 10‐year period in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33(5), 2239–2248. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15579

• Burgess, B. A., Morley, P. S., & Hyatt, D. R. (2004). Environmental surveillance for Salmonella enterica in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(9), 1344–1348. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1344

• Canadian Committee on Antibiotic Resistance. (2008). Infection prevention and control best practices for small animal veterinary clinics. https://www.oahn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/OAHN-IPC-Guide-SB-Final-Jan0820_All_tagged.pdf

• Castor, M. L., Wooley, R. E., Shotts, E. B., Brown, J., & Payeur, J. B. (1989). Characteristics of Salmonella isolated from an outbreak of equine salmonellosis in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 9(5), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0737-0806(89)80078-4

• Chaslus-Dancla, E., Lafont, J. P., & Martel, J. L. (2000). Spread of resistance from food animals to man: The French experience. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 93, 53–60.

• Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. (2020). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (32nd ed.). CLSI. https://clsi.org/standards/products/microbiology/documents/m100/

• Cohen, N. D., Martin, L. J., Simpson, R. B., Wallis, D. E., & Neibergs, H. L. (1996). Comparison of polymerase chain reaction and microbiological culture for detection of salmonellae in equine feces and environmental samples. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 57(6), 780–786.

• Cummings, K. J., Rodriguez-Rivera, L. D., Mitchell, K. J., Hoelzer, K., Wiedmann, M., McDonough, P. L., Altier, C., Warnick, L. D., & Perkins, G. A. (2014). Salmonella enterica serovar Oranienburg outbreak in a veterinary medical teaching hospital with evidence of nosocomial and on-farm transmission. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 14(7), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2013.1467

• Dallap Schaer, B. L., Aceto, H., Caruso, M. A., & Brace, M. A. (2012). Identification of predictors of Salmonella shedding in adult horses presented for acute colic. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 26(5), 1177–1185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00984.x

• Dallap Schaer, B. L., Aceto, H., & Rankin, S. C. (2010). Outbreak of salmonellosis caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Newport MDR-AmpC in a large animal veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(5), 1138–1146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0546.x

• Dargatz, D. A., & Traub-Dargatz, J. L. (2004). Multidrug-resistant Salmonella and nosocomial infections. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 20(3), 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2004.07.008

• Ernst, N. S., Hernandez, J. A., Mackay, R. J., Brown, M. P., Gaskin, J. M., Nguyen, A. D., Giguere, S., Colahan, P. T., Troedsson, M. R., Haines, G. R., Addison, I. R., & Miller, B. J. (2004). Risk factors associated with fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized horses with signs of gastrointestinal tract disease. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(2), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.275

• Ewart, S. L., Schott, H. C., Robison, R. L., Dwyer, R. M., Eberhart, S. W., & Walker, R. D. (2001). Identification of sources of Salmonella organisms in a veterinary teaching hospital and evaluation of the effects of disinfectants on detection of Salmonella organisms on surface materials. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(7), 1145–1151. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.1145

• Gerrad, E. (2021). Infection control and hygiene: A guide to best practice. British Veterinary Nursing Association. https://bvna.org.uk/blog/infection-control-and-hygiene-a-guide-to-best-practice/

• Goeman, V. R., Tinkler, S. H., Hammac, G. K., & Ruple, A. (2018). Evaluation of environmental sampling methods for detection of Salmonella enterica in a large animal veterinary hospital. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 59(4), 408–412.

• Hartmann, F. A., Callan, R. J., McGuirk, S. M., & West, S. E. (1996). Control of an outbreak of salmonellosis caused by drug-resistant Salmonella anatum in horses at a veterinary hospital and measures to prevent future infections. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 209(3), 629–631.

• Hartmann, F. A., & West, S. E. H. (1995). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of multidrug-resistant Salmonella anatum isolated from horses. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 7(1), 159–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879500700128

• Hird, D. W., Casebolt, D. B., Carter, J. D., Pappaioanou, M., & Hjerpe, C. A. (1986). Risk factors for salmonellosis in hospitalised horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 188(2), 173–177.

• Hird, D. W., Pappaioanou, M., & Smith, B. (1984). Case-control study of risk factors associated with isolation of Salmonella Saintpaul in hospitalized horses. American Journal of Epidemiology, 120(6), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113957

• Hornig, K. J., Burgess, B. A., Saklou, N. T., Johnson, V., Malmlov, A., van Metre, D. C., Morley, P. S., & Byers, S. R. (2016). Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectant footmats for the reduction of bacterial contamination on footwear in a large animal veterinary hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(6), 1882–1886. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14576

• House, J. K., Mainar-jaime, R. C., & Smith, B. P. (1999). Risk factors for nosocomial Salmonella infection among hospitalized horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 214(10), 1511–1516.

• Hyatt, D. R., & Weese, J. S. (2004). Salmonella culture: Sampling procedures and laboratory techniques. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 20(3), 577–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2004.07.007

• Irwin, M. (1994). Stress-induced immune suppression: Role of brain corticotropin releasing hormone and autonomic nervous system mechanisms. Advances in Neuroimmunology, 4(1), 29–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-5428(06)80188-9

• Kim, L. M., Morley, P. S., Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Salman, M. D., & Gentry-Weeks, C. (2001). Factors associated with Salmonella shedding among equine colic patients at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(5), 740–748. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.740

• Kirk, J., Boggs, C., Jeffery, J., & Cardona, C. (2003). Efficacy of disinfectants for sanitizing boots under dairy farm conditions. The Bovine Practitioner, 37(1), 50–53.

• Kramer, G. F., & Ames, B. N. (1987). Oxidative mechanisms of toxicity of low-intensity near-UV light in Salmonella typhimurium. Journal of Bacteriology, 169(5), 2259–2266. https://journals.asm.org/journal/jb

• Lipton, B. A., Hopkins, S. G., Koehler, J. E., & DiGiacomo, R. F. (2008). A survey of veterinarian involvement in zoonotic disease prevention practices. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 233(8), 1242–1249. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.233.8.1242

• Lyle, C. H., Annandale, C. H., Gouws, J., & Morley, P. S. (2015). Comparison of two culture techniques used to detect environmental contamination with Salmonella enterica in a large-animal hospital. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 86(1), 1292–1295. https://doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v86i1.1292

• Magiorakos, A. P., Srinivasan, A., Carey, R. B., Carmeli, Y., Falagas, M. E., Giske, C. G., Harbarth, S., Hindler, J. F., Kahlmeter, G., Olsson-Liljequist, B., Paterson, D. L., Rice, L. B., Stelling, J., Struelens, M. J., Vatopoulos, A., Weber, J. T., & Monnet, D. L. (2012). Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 18(3), 268–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x

• Mammina, C., Cannova, L., Massa, S., Goffredo, E., & Nastasi, A. (2002). Drug resistances in Salmonella isolates from animal foods, Italy 1998–2000. Epidemiology and Infection, 129(1), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268802007239

• McMillian, M., Dunn, J. R., Keen, J. E., Brady, K. L., & Jones, T. F. (2007). Risk behaviors for disease transmission among petting zoo attendees. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 231(7), 1036–1038. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.231.7.1036

• Mead, P. S., Slutsker, L., Dietz, V., McCaig, L. F., Bresee, J. S., Shapiro, C., Griffin, P. M., & Tauxe, R. V. (1999). Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(5), 607–625. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0505.990502

• Merritt, K., Hitchins, V. M., & Brown, S. A. (2000). Safety and cleaning of medical materials and devices. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 53(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(2000)53:2<131::AID-JBM1>3.0.CO;2-I

• Morley, P. S. (2013). Evidence-based infection control in clinical practice: If you buy clothes for the Emperor, will he wear them?. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 27(3), 430–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12060

• Morley, P. S., Anderson, M. E. C., Burgess, B. A., Aceto, H., Bender, J. B., Clark, C., Daniels, J. B., Davis, M. A., Hinchcliff, K. W., Johnson, J. R., McClure, J., Perkins, G. A., Pusterla, N., Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Weese, J. S., & Whittem, T. L. (2013). Report of the third Havemeyer workshop on infection control in equine populations. Equine Veterinary Journal, 45(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12000

• Morley, P. S., Morris, S. N., Hyatt, D. R., & van Metre, D. C. (2005). Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectant footbaths as used in veterinary hospitals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 226(12), 2053–2058. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2005.226.2053

• Newbury, S., Blinn, M. K., Bushby, P. A., Cox, C. B., Dinnage, J. D., Griffin, B., Hurley, K. F., Isaza, N., Jones, W., Miller, L., O’Quin, J., Patronek, G. J., Smith-Blackmore, M., & Spindel, M. (2010). Guidelines for standard of care in animal shelters. The Association of Shelter Veterinarians. https://oacu.oir.nih.gov/system/files/media/file/2021-02/shelterguide.pdf

• Owen, R. A., Fullerton, J., & Barnum, D. A. (1983). Effects of transportation, surgery, and antibiotic therapy in ponies infected with Salmonella. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 44(1), 46–50.

• Pandya, M., Wittum, T., Tadesse, D. A., Gebreyes, W., & Hoet, A. (2009). Environmental Salmonella surveillance in the Ohio State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 9(6), 649–654. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2008.0120

• Radošević-Stasic, B., Cuk, M., Mrakovčić-Šutić, I., Barac-Latas, V., Muhvić, D., Lučin, P., Petković, M., & Rukavina, D. (1990). Immunosuppressive properties of halothane anesthesia and/or surgical stress in experimental conditions. International Journal of Neuroscience, 51(3–4), 235–236. https://doi.org/10.3109/00207459008999706

• Roberts, M. C., & O’Boyle, D. A. (1981). The prevalence and epizootiology of salmonellosis among groups of horses in south east Queensland. Australian Veterinary Journal, 57(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1981.tb07081.x

• Rostagno, M. H., Gailey, J. K., Hurd, H. S., Mckean, J. D., & Leite, R. C. (2005). Culture methods differ on the isolation of Salmonella enterica serotypes from naturally contaminated swine fecal samples. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 17(1), 80–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870501700118

• Ruple-Czerniak, A., Bolte, D. S., Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2014). Comparison of two sampling and culture systems for detection of Salmonella enterica in the environment of a large animal hospital. Equine Veterinary Journal, 46(4), 499–502. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12193

• Schott, H. C., Ewart, S. L., Walker, R. D., Dwyer, R. M., Dietrich, S., Eberhart, S. W., Kusey, J., Stick, J. A., & Derksen, F. J. (2001). An outbreak of salmonellosis among horses at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(7), 1152–1159. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.1152

• Sheridan, J. F., Dobbs, C., Brown, D., & Zwilling, B. (1994). Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress effects on pathogenesis and immunity during infection. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 7(2), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.7.2.200

• Smith, B. P., House, J. K., Magdesian, K. G., Jang, S. S., Cabral, R. L., Madigan, J. E., & Herthel, W. F. (2004). Principles of an infectious disease control program for preventing nosocomial gastrointestinal and respiratory tract diseases in large animal veterinary hospitals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(8), 1186–1195. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1186

• Soza-Ossandón, P., Rivera, D., Tardone, R., Riquelme-Neira, R., García, P., Hamilton-West, C., Adell, A. D., González-Rocha, G., & Moreno-Switt, A. I. (2020). Widespread environmental presence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella in an equine veterinary hospital that received local and international horses. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 346. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00346

• Steneroden, K. (2012). Sanitation. In L. Miller & S. Zawistowski (Eds.), Shelter medicine for veterinarians and staff (2nd ed., pp. 37–47). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119421511.ch4

• Steneroden, K. K., van Metre, D. C., Jackson, C., & Morley, P. S. (2010). Detection and control of a nosocomial outbreak caused by Salmonella Newport at a large animal hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(3), 606–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0484.x

• Stockton, K. A., Morley, P. S., Hyatt, D. R., Burgess, B. A., Patterson, G., Dunowska, M., & Lee, D. E. (2006). Evaluation of the effects of footwear hygiene protocols on nonspecific bacterial contamination of floor surfaces in an equine hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(7), 1068–1073. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.228.7.1068

• Stull, J. W., Bjorvik, E., Bub, J., Dvorak, G., Petersen, C., & Troyer, H. L. (2018). 2018 AAHA infection control, prevention, and biosecurity guidelines. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 54(6), 297–326. https://doi.org/10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6903

• Tambuwal, F. M., Shittu, A., Abubakar, M. B., Salihu, M. D., Junaidu, A. U., Magaji, A. A., Lawal, M., & Danyaro, M. (2009). A survey of veterinary hospitals in Nigeria for the presence of some bacterial organisms of nosocomial and zoonotic potential. Veterinaria Italiana, 45(2), 235–241.

• Tannock, G. W., & Savage, D. C. (1974). Influences of dietary and environmental stress on microbial populations in the murine gastrointestinal tract. Infection and Immunity, 9(3), 591–598. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.9.3.591-598.1974

• Tillotson, K., Savage, C. J., Salman, M. D., Gentry-Weeks, C. R., Rice, D., Fedorka-Cray, P. J., Hendrickson, D. A., Jones, R. L., Nelson, W., & Traub-Dargatz, J. L. (1997). Outbreak of Salmonella infantis infection in a large animal veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 211(12), 1554–1557.

• Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Salman, M. D., & Jones, R. L. (1990). Epidemiologic study of salmonellae shedding in the feces of horses and potential risk factors for development of the infection in hospitalized horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 196(10), 1617–1622.

• van Duijkeren, E., Wannet, W. J. B., Heck, M. E. O. C., van Pelt, W., Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M., Smit, J. A. H., & Houwers, D. J. (2002). Sero types, phage types and antibiotic susceptibilities of Salmonella strains isolated from horses in The Netherlands from 1993 to 2000. Veterinary Microbiology, 86(3), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00007-X

• Ward, M. P., Brady, T. H., Couetil, L. L., Liljebjelke, K., Maurer, J. J., & Wu, C. C. (2005). Investigation and control an outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium in a population of hospitalized horses. Veterinary Microbiology, 107(3-4), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.01.019

• Wray, C., Todd, N., McLaren, I. M., & Beedell, Y. E. (1991). The epidemiology of Salmonella in calves: The role of markets and vehicles. Epidemiology and Infection, 107(3), 521–525. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268800049219

• Wright, J. G., Jung, S., Holman, R. C., Marano, N. N., & McQuiston, J. H. (2008). Infection control practices and zoonotic disease risks among veterinarians in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 232(12), 1863–1872. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.232.12.1863

• Wright, J. G., Tengelsen, L. A., Smith, K. E., Bender, J. B., Frank, R. K., Grendon, J. H., Rice, D. H., Thiessen, A. M. B., Gilbertson, C. J., Sivapalasingam, S., Barrett, T. J., Besser, T. E., Hancock, D. D., & Angulo, F. J. (2005). Multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium in four animal facilities. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(8), 1235–1241. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1108.050111

• Aceto, H., Rankin, S. C., Dallap, B. L., Dolente, B., Munro, D. S., Benson Charles, C. E., & Smith G. (2006). Salmonella infection at a veterinary teaching hospital: The University of Pennsylvania experience. https://www.usaha.org/upload/Proceedings/2006_USAHA_Proceedings.pdf

• Adzitey, F., Rusul, G., & Huda, N. (2012). Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella serovars in ducks, duck rearing and processing environments in Penang, Malaysia. Food Research International, 45(2), 947–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.051

• Alinovi, C. A., Ward, M. P., Couëtil, L. L., & Wu, C. C. (2003). Detection of Salmonella organisms and assessment of a protocol for removal of contamination in horse stalls at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 223(11), 1640–1644. https://doi.org/10.2460/JAVMA.2003.223.1640

• Amavisit, P., Markham, P. F., Lightfoot, D., Whithear, K. G., & Browning, G. F. (2001). Molecular epidemiology of Salmonella Heidelberg in an equine hospital. Veterinary Microbiology, 80(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1135(00)00373-4

• Anderson, M. E. C., & Weese, J. S. (2022). Video observation of hand hygiene practices at a petting zoo and the impact of hand hygiene interventions. Epidemiology and Infection, 140(1), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026881100029X

• Australian Veterinary Association. (2017). Guidelines for veterinary personal biosecurity. AVA. https://www.ava.com.au/siteassets/resources/veterinary-personal-biosecurity/guidelines-for-veterinary-personal-biosecurity-2017-final.pdf

• Bauer, A. W., Kirby, W. M. M., Sherris, J. C., & Turck, M. (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 45(3), 493–496.

• Bean, N. H., & Griffin, P. M. (1990). Foodborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1973-1987: Pathogens, vehicles, and trends. Journal of Food Protection, 53(9), 804–817. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-53.9.804

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2015). Veterinary hospital surveillance systems. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 45(2), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.11.002

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2018). Risk factors for veterinary hospital environmental contamination with Salmonella enterica. Epidemiology and Infection, 146(10), 1282–1292. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268818001164

• Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2019). Risk factors for shedding of Salmonella enterica among hospitalized large animals over a 10‐year period in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33(5), 2239–2248. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15579

• Burgess, B. A., Morley, P. S., & Hyatt, D. R. (2004). Environmental surveillance for Salmonella enterica in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(9), 1344–1348. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1344

• Canadian Committee on Antibiotic Resistance. (2008). Infection prevention and control best practices for small animal veterinary clinics. https://www.oahn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/OAHN-IPC-Guide-SB-Final-Jan0820_All_tagged.pdf

• Castor, M. L., Wooley, R. E., Shotts, E. B., Brown, J., & Payeur, J. B. (1989). Characteristics of Salmonella isolated from an outbreak of equine salmonellosis in a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 9(5), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0737-0806(89)80078-4

• Chaslus-Dancla, E., Lafont, J. P., & Martel, J. L. (2000). Spread of resistance from food animals to man: The French experience. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 93, 53–60.

• Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. (2020). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (32nd ed.). CLSI. https://clsi.org/standards/products/microbiology/documents/m100/

• Cohen, N. D., Martin, L. J., Simpson, R. B., Wallis, D. E., & Neibergs, H. L. (1996). Comparison of polymerase chain reaction and microbiological culture for detection of salmonellae in equine feces and environmental samples. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 57(6), 780–786.

• Cummings, K. J., Rodriguez-Rivera, L. D., Mitchell, K. J., Hoelzer, K., Wiedmann, M., McDonough, P. L., Altier, C., Warnick, L. D., & Perkins, G. A. (2014). Salmonella enterica serovar Oranienburg outbreak in a veterinary medical teaching hospital with evidence of nosocomial and on-farm transmission. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 14(7), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2013.1467

• Dallap Schaer, B. L., Aceto, H., Caruso, M. A., & Brace, M. A. (2012). Identification of predictors of Salmonella shedding in adult horses presented for acute colic. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 26(5), 1177–1185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00984.x

• Dallap Schaer, B. L., Aceto, H., & Rankin, S. C. (2010). Outbreak of salmonellosis caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Newport MDR-AmpC in a large animal veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(5), 1138–1146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0546.x

• Dargatz, D. A., & Traub-Dargatz, J. L. (2004). Multidrug-resistant Salmonella and nosocomial infections. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 20(3), 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2004.07.008

• Ernst, N. S., Hernandez, J. A., Mackay, R. J., Brown, M. P., Gaskin, J. M., Nguyen, A. D., Giguere, S., Colahan, P. T., Troedsson, M. R., Haines, G. R., Addison, I. R., & Miller, B. J. (2004). Risk factors associated with fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized horses with signs of gastrointestinal tract disease. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(2), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.275

• Ewart, S. L., Schott, H. C., Robison, R. L., Dwyer, R. M., Eberhart, S. W., & Walker, R. D. (2001). Identification of sources of Salmonella organisms in a veterinary teaching hospital and evaluation of the effects of disinfectants on detection of Salmonella organisms on surface materials. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(7), 1145–1151. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.1145

• Gerrad, E. (2021). Infection control and hygiene: A guide to best practice. British Veterinary Nursing Association. https://bvna.org.uk/blog/infection-control-and-hygiene-a-guide-to-best-practice/

• Goeman, V. R., Tinkler, S. H., Hammac, G. K., & Ruple, A. (2018). Evaluation of environmental sampling methods for detection of Salmonella enterica in a large animal veterinary hospital. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 59(4), 408–412.

• Hartmann, F. A., Callan, R. J., McGuirk, S. M., & West, S. E. (1996). Control of an outbreak of salmonellosis caused by drug-resistant Salmonella anatum in horses at a veterinary hospital and measures to prevent future infections. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 209(3), 629–631.

• Hartmann, F. A., & West, S. E. H. (1995). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of multidrug-resistant Salmonella anatum isolated from horses. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 7(1), 159–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879500700128

• Hird, D. W., Casebolt, D. B., Carter, J. D., Pappaioanou, M., & Hjerpe, C. A. (1986). Risk factors for salmonellosis in hospitalised horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 188(2), 173–177.

• Hird, D. W., Pappaioanou, M., & Smith, B. (1984). Case-control study of risk factors associated with isolation of Salmonella Saintpaul in hospitalized horses. American Journal of Epidemiology, 120(6), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113957

• Hornig, K. J., Burgess, B. A., Saklou, N. T., Johnson, V., Malmlov, A., van Metre, D. C., Morley, P. S., & Byers, S. R. (2016). Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectant footmats for the reduction of bacterial contamination on footwear in a large animal veterinary hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(6), 1882–1886. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14576

• House, J. K., Mainar-jaime, R. C., & Smith, B. P. (1999). Risk factors for nosocomial Salmonella infection among hospitalized horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 214(10), 1511–1516.

• Hyatt, D. R., & Weese, J. S. (2004). Salmonella culture: Sampling procedures and laboratory techniques. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 20(3), 577–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2004.07.007

• Irwin, M. (1994). Stress-induced immune suppression: Role of brain corticotropin releasing hormone and autonomic nervous system mechanisms. Advances in Neuroimmunology, 4(1), 29–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-5428(06)80188-9

• Kim, L. M., Morley, P. S., Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Salman, M. D., & Gentry-Weeks, C. (2001). Factors associated with Salmonella shedding among equine colic patients at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(5), 740–748. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.740

• Kirk, J., Boggs, C., Jeffery, J., & Cardona, C. (2003). Efficacy of disinfectants for sanitizing boots under dairy farm conditions. The Bovine Practitioner, 37(1), 50–53.

• Kramer, G. F., & Ames, B. N. (1987). Oxidative mechanisms of toxicity of low-intensity near-UV light in Salmonella typhimurium. Journal of Bacteriology, 169(5), 2259–2266. https://journals.asm.org/journal/jb

• Lipton, B. A., Hopkins, S. G., Koehler, J. E., & DiGiacomo, R. F. (2008). A survey of veterinarian involvement in zoonotic disease prevention practices. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 233(8), 1242–1249. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.233.8.1242

• Lyle, C. H., Annandale, C. H., Gouws, J., & Morley, P. S. (2015). Comparison of two culture techniques used to detect environmental contamination with Salmonella enterica in a large-animal hospital. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 86(1), 1292–1295. https://doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v86i1.1292

• Magiorakos, A. P., Srinivasan, A., Carey, R. B., Carmeli, Y., Falagas, M. E., Giske, C. G., Harbarth, S., Hindler, J. F., Kahlmeter, G., Olsson-Liljequist, B., Paterson, D. L., Rice, L. B., Stelling, J., Struelens, M. J., Vatopoulos, A., Weber, J. T., & Monnet, D. L. (2012). Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 18(3), 268–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x

• Mammina, C., Cannova, L., Massa, S., Goffredo, E., & Nastasi, A. (2002). Drug resistances in Salmonella isolates from animal foods, Italy 1998–2000. Epidemiology and Infection, 129(1), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268802007239

• McMillian, M., Dunn, J. R., Keen, J. E., Brady, K. L., & Jones, T. F. (2007). Risk behaviors for disease transmission among petting zoo attendees. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 231(7), 1036–1038. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.231.7.1036

• Mead, P. S., Slutsker, L., Dietz, V., McCaig, L. F., Bresee, J. S., Shapiro, C., Griffin, P. M., & Tauxe, R. V. (1999). Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(5), 607–625. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0505.990502

• Merritt, K., Hitchins, V. M., & Brown, S. A. (2000). Safety and cleaning of medical materials and devices. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 53(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(2000)53:2<131::AID-JBM1>3.0.CO;2-I

• Morley, P. S. (2013). Evidence-based infection control in clinical practice: If you buy clothes for the Emperor, will he wear them?. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 27(3), 430–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12060

• Morley, P. S., Anderson, M. E. C., Burgess, B. A., Aceto, H., Bender, J. B., Clark, C., Daniels, J. B., Davis, M. A., Hinchcliff, K. W., Johnson, J. R., McClure, J., Perkins, G. A., Pusterla, N., Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Weese, J. S., & Whittem, T. L. (2013). Report of the third Havemeyer workshop on infection control in equine populations. Equine Veterinary Journal, 45(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12000

• Morley, P. S., Morris, S. N., Hyatt, D. R., & van Metre, D. C. (2005). Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectant footbaths as used in veterinary hospitals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 226(12), 2053–2058. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2005.226.2053

• Newbury, S., Blinn, M. K., Bushby, P. A., Cox, C. B., Dinnage, J. D., Griffin, B., Hurley, K. F., Isaza, N., Jones, W., Miller, L., O’Quin, J., Patronek, G. J., Smith-Blackmore, M., & Spindel, M. (2010). Guidelines for standard of care in animal shelters. The Association of Shelter Veterinarians. https://oacu.oir.nih.gov/system/files/media/file/2021-02/shelterguide.pdf

• Owen, R. A., Fullerton, J., & Barnum, D. A. (1983). Effects of transportation, surgery, and antibiotic therapy in ponies infected with Salmonella. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 44(1), 46–50.

• Pandya, M., Wittum, T., Tadesse, D. A., Gebreyes, W., & Hoet, A. (2009). Environmental Salmonella surveillance in the Ohio State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 9(6), 649–654. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2008.0120

• Radošević-Stasic, B., Cuk, M., Mrakovčić-Šutić, I., Barac-Latas, V., Muhvić, D., Lučin, P., Petković, M., & Rukavina, D. (1990). Immunosuppressive properties of halothane anesthesia and/or surgical stress in experimental conditions. International Journal of Neuroscience, 51(3–4), 235–236. https://doi.org/10.3109/00207459008999706

• Roberts, M. C., & O’Boyle, D. A. (1981). The prevalence and epizootiology of salmonellosis among groups of horses in south east Queensland. Australian Veterinary Journal, 57(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1981.tb07081.x

• Rostagno, M. H., Gailey, J. K., Hurd, H. S., Mckean, J. D., & Leite, R. C. (2005). Culture methods differ on the isolation of Salmonella enterica serotypes from naturally contaminated swine fecal samples. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 17(1), 80–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870501700118

• Ruple-Czerniak, A., Bolte, D. S., Burgess, B. A., & Morley, P. S. (2014). Comparison of two sampling and culture systems for detection of Salmonella enterica in the environment of a large animal hospital. Equine Veterinary Journal, 46(4), 499–502. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12193

• Schott, H. C., Ewart, S. L., Walker, R. D., Dwyer, R. M., Dietrich, S., Eberhart, S. W., Kusey, J., Stick, J. A., & Derksen, F. J. (2001). An outbreak of salmonellosis among horses at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 218(7), 1152–1159. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.1152

• Sheridan, J. F., Dobbs, C., Brown, D., & Zwilling, B. (1994). Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress effects on pathogenesis and immunity during infection. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 7(2), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.7.2.200

• Smith, B. P., House, J. K., Magdesian, K. G., Jang, S. S., Cabral, R. L., Madigan, J. E., & Herthel, W. F. (2004). Principles of an infectious disease control program for preventing nosocomial gastrointestinal and respiratory tract diseases in large animal veterinary hospitals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(8), 1186–1195. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1186

• Soza-Ossandón, P., Rivera, D., Tardone, R., Riquelme-Neira, R., García, P., Hamilton-West, C., Adell, A. D., González-Rocha, G., & Moreno-Switt, A. I. (2020). Widespread environmental presence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella in an equine veterinary hospital that received local and international horses. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 346. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00346

• Steneroden, K. (2012). Sanitation. In L. Miller & S. Zawistowski (Eds.), Shelter medicine for veterinarians and staff (2nd ed., pp. 37–47). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119421511.ch4

• Steneroden, K. K., van Metre, D. C., Jackson, C., & Morley, P. S. (2010). Detection and control of a nosocomial outbreak caused by Salmonella Newport at a large animal hospital. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(3), 606–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0484.x

• Stockton, K. A., Morley, P. S., Hyatt, D. R., Burgess, B. A., Patterson, G., Dunowska, M., & Lee, D. E. (2006). Evaluation of the effects of footwear hygiene protocols on nonspecific bacterial contamination of floor surfaces in an equine hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(7), 1068–1073. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.228.7.1068

• Stull, J. W., Bjorvik, E., Bub, J., Dvorak, G., Petersen, C., & Troyer, H. L. (2018). 2018 AAHA infection control, prevention, and biosecurity guidelines. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 54(6), 297–326. https://doi.org/10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6903

• Tambuwal, F. M., Shittu, A., Abubakar, M. B., Salihu, M. D., Junaidu, A. U., Magaji, A. A., Lawal, M., & Danyaro, M. (2009). A survey of veterinary hospitals in Nigeria for the presence of some bacterial organisms of nosocomial and zoonotic potential. Veterinaria Italiana, 45(2), 235–241.

• Tannock, G. W., & Savage, D. C. (1974). Influences of dietary and environmental stress on microbial populations in the murine gastrointestinal tract. Infection and Immunity, 9(3), 591–598. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.9.3.591-598.1974

• Tillotson, K., Savage, C. J., Salman, M. D., Gentry-Weeks, C. R., Rice, D., Fedorka-Cray, P. J., Hendrickson, D. A., Jones, R. L., Nelson, W., & Traub-Dargatz, J. L. (1997). Outbreak of Salmonella infantis infection in a large animal veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 211(12), 1554–1557.

• Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Salman, M. D., & Jones, R. L. (1990). Epidemiologic study of salmonellae shedding in the feces of horses and potential risk factors for development of the infection in hospitalized horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 196(10), 1617–1622.

• van Duijkeren, E., Wannet, W. J. B., Heck, M. E. O. C., van Pelt, W., Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M., Smit, J. A. H., & Houwers, D. J. (2002). Sero types, phage types and antibiotic susceptibilities of Salmonella strains isolated from horses in The Netherlands from 1993 to 2000. Veterinary Microbiology, 86(3), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00007-X

• Ward, M. P., Brady, T. H., Couetil, L. L., Liljebjelke, K., Maurer, J. J., & Wu, C. C. (2005). Investigation and control an outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium in a population of hospitalized horses. Veterinary Microbiology, 107(3-4), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.01.019

• Wray, C., Todd, N., McLaren, I. M., & Beedell, Y. E. (1991). The epidemiology of Salmonella in calves: The role of markets and vehicles. Epidemiology and Infection, 107(3), 521–525. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268800049219

• Wright, J. G., Jung, S., Holman, R. C., Marano, N. N., & McQuiston, J. H. (2008). Infection control practices and zoonotic disease risks among veterinarians in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 232(12), 1863–1872. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.232.12.1863

• Wright, J. G., Tengelsen, L. A., Smith, K. E., Bender, J. B., Frank, R. K., Grendon, J. H., Rice, D. H., Thiessen, A. M. B., Gilbertson, C. J., Sivapalasingam, S., Barrett, T. J., Besser, T. E., Hancock, D. D., & Angulo, F. J. (2005). Multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium in four animal facilities. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(8), 1235–1241. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1108.050111